Kaplan study sheet

Follicle-stimulating (FSH)

Follicle-stimulating (FSH)

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- Stimulates follicle maturation, spermatogenesis

Luteinizing (LH)

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates ovulation, testosterone synthesis

Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete corticosteroids

Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

Prolactin

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- stimulates milk production and secretion

Endorphins

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- Inhibit the perception of pain in the brain

Growth hormone

Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates bone and muscle growth, lipolysis

Oxytocin

Hormone from the Hypothalamus; stores in the posterior pituitary
- Stimulates uterine counteractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation

Vasopressin (ADH)

Hormone from the Hypothalamus; stores in the posterior pituitary
- Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys

Thyroid hormones (T4, T3)

Hormone from the thyroid (which is related to iodine)
- Stimulates metabolic activity

Calcitonin

Hormone from the thyroid (which is related to iodine)
- Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level

Parathyroid hormone

Hormone from the Parathyroid
- Increases blood calcium level

Glucocorticoids

Hormone from the Adrenal Cortex
- Increases blood glucose level, decrease protein synthesis

Mineralocorticoids

Hormone from the Adrenal Cortex
- Increases water reabsorption in kidneys

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

Hormone from the Adrenal medulla
- Increases blood glucose level and heart rate

Glucagon

Hormone from the Pancreas
- Simulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and increases blood glucose

Insulin

Hormone from the Pancreas (not a steroid)
- Lowers blood glucose and increases glycogen stores

Somatostatin

Hormone from the Pancreas
- Suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin

Testosterone

Hormone from the testes
- Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics

Estrogen

Hormone from the Ovary/Placenta
- Maintains female secondary sexual charcteristics

Melatonin

Hormone from the Pineal
- Maintains circadian rhythms

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Hormone from the heart
- Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation

Thymosin

Hormone from the thymus
- Stimulates T lymphocyte development

Peptide Hormones

Mechanism of hormone action via secondary messengers

Steroid Hormones

Mechanism of hormone action via Hormone/receptor binding to DNA

Monoamine Hormones

Mechanism of hormone action both:
Hormone/receptor binding to DNA
secondary messengers

What is the overall reaction of photosynthesis?

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2

What are the products of the Light Reactions in photosynthesis?

NADPH, ATP, Oxygen, and Protons

What are the products of the Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions)?

C3H6O3 (Glyceraldehyde or G3P), Water, NADP, ADP, Inorganic Phosphate

What are the four stages of Early Development

Cleavage: Mitotic divisions
Implantation: Embryo implants during blastulation
Gastrulation: Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm formation
Neurulation: Germ layers develop a nervous system

What does the Ectoderm form?

-Nervous system
-epidermis
-lens of eye
-inner ear

What does endoderm form?

-lining of digestive tract
-Lungs
-Liver
-Pancreas

What does the Mesoderm form?

-Muscles
-Skeleton
-Circulatory System
-Gonads
-Kidneys

What does Aldosterone do in Homeostasis?

Steroid signaling molecule that stimulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion, increasing water reabsorption, blood volume and blood pressure
- Secreted from the Adrenal cortex
- Regulated by Renin-angiotensin system

What role does ADH play in Homeostasis?

-Increases collecting duct’s permeability to water to increase water reabsorption
-Secreted from posterior pituitary with high (solute) in the blood

What are the 7 roles of the Liver in Homeostasis?

1. Gluconeogenesis

2. Processing of nitrogenous waste (urea)

3. Detoxification of wastes/chemicals/drugs

4. Storage of Iron and vitamin B₁₂

5. Synthesis of Bile and blood proteins

6. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids to ketones

7. Interconversion of carbs, fat, and amino acids

Ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)

Important protein that captures CO2 from the environment

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO)

protein responsible for fixation of CO2 to form a six carbon compound for glucose production

Pepsin

Produced in the Gastric Glands (chief cells) for the stomach:
-Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
-Protein digestion

Trypsin

Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine
-Hydrolyze specific peptide bonds
-Converts chymotrypsinogen
-Protein Digestion

Chymotrypsin

Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
-Protein Digestion

Carboxypeptidase

Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Terminal peptide bond at carboxyl
-Protein Digestion

Aminopeptidase

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at amino
-Protein Digestion

Dipeptidases

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
-Protein Digestion

Enterokinase

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
-Protein Digestion

Salivary amylase (ptyalin)

Produced in the Salivary Glands for the Mouth:
-Hydrolyzes Starch into Maltose
-Carbohydrate Digestion

Pancreatic Amylase

Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzed Starch into Maltose
-Carbohydrate Digestion

Maltase

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Maltose into 2 Glucose
-Carbohydrate Digestion

Sucrase

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Sucrose into Glucose + Fructose
-Carbohydrate Digestion

Lactase

Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Lactose into Glucose + Galactose
- Carbohydrate Digestion

Double Fertilization

-Mostly occurs in Angiosperms
-Two male gametes combine with the female gametophyte

Endosperm

Food-storing tissue in the developing plant embryo

Meiosis 1

• Two pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads during prophase 1

• Crossing over leads to genetic recombination in Prophase 1

Meiosis 2

• Identical to mitosis but without replication

• Meiosis occurs in both spermatogenesis (sperm formation) and oogenesis (egg formation)

The sequence of embryonic development

Zygote → Morula → Blastula → Gastrula
The union of male and female gametes produces a zygote. The zygote undergoes many cleavages, or divisions, first forming a morula, a solid ball of cells. The next stage in embryonic development is the blastula, which is a hollow ball of cells. The blastula invaginates to form a gastrula with three germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (moving outwards from the inside).

Operant Conditioning

method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior

Pavlovian Conditioning

Classical Conditioning, associating a biological response to an environmental stimulus

Single nondisjunction

Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. Results in:
-Miscarriage
-more or less chromosomes
-Down syndrome

Insect Gas Exchange

Occurs through the Tracheae

Mammal Characteristics

-Milk producing
-Three bones in the middle ear
-Heterodont Dentition (different types of teeth)
-Sebaceous glands (oil producing)

Poikilothermic

Organisms with varying internal temperature

Brain Division (3 sections)

-Prosencephalon (forebrain)
-Mesencephalon (midbrain)
-Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Excretion organs

Skin
Lungs
Liver
Kidney
Large Intestine

Chiasmata

Structure formed when crossing over occurs

tRNA

1. Function:

   • Acts as an intermediary during protein synthesis.

   • Carries a specific amino acid based on its anticodon sequence.

2. Structure:

   • Unique cloverleaf-shaped structure.

   • Contains anticodon loop, acceptor arm, and D-arm/T-arm.

Fetal blood circulation characteristics

• Blood is oxygenated at the placenta

• Blood is shunted away from the lungs by the ductus arteriosus

• Fetal lungs receive very little blood

• Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for Oxygen than adult hemoglobin

Osteoblast

Builds bone

Osteoclast

Breaks down bone tissue

The 4 types of Animal Communication

Visual - Body language, facial expressions, coloration
Auditory - Vocalization, calls, screams, songs
Olfactory (chemical) - scent to portray territoriality, fear, aggression, or mating interest

Upper & Lower Epidermis

Thin layers of cell that protect the leaf from and damage and prevent water loss.
Contains the cuticle, stoma, and guard cells

Mesophyll

A layer of photosynthetic cells between the upper and lower epidermis contains most of the leaf’s chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis.

Cuticle

Layer of wax covering the leaves’ upper and lower surfaces

Stoma

Contain pores called stomata on the bottom surface, allowing gases to enter and exit the leaf.

Guard Cells

Stomata are regulated by guard cells, which open and close them in response to environmental conditions such as light, temperature, and humidity.

Turgid

A hypotonic condition that means full of water

Plasmolysis

Hypertonic condition that involves the shrinkage of the plasma membrane and pulls away from the cell wall due to water loss in the cell

Auxins

A plant specific hormone that increases cell growth and is related why plants growth opposite and with gravity.

Cytokinins

Plant hormone that increases cell division

Gibberellins

Plant hormone that increases cell growht

Ethylene

Plant hormone that increases the fruit ripening

Abscisic Acid

Plant hormone that decreases and inhibits cell growth

4 stages of the bacterial growth curve

Lag - adapting phase, preparing for replication
Exponential - exponential growth at maximum rates
Stationary - slowed growth rate, no longer increasing
Death - final phase, cells begin to die off

Transformation

Bacterium takes up DNA from its environment

Transduction

Genetic information is transferred from one organism to another by a virus or other agent

Conjugation

Sexual reproduction where two bacteria come together and exchange DNA using a pilus bridge.

The 2 types of joints

Ligament - Flexible band of tissue that attach bones to bones

Tendon - Flexible bands of tissue that attach muscles to bones

Epiglottis

Flap-like structure that prevent food or liquids from entering the airway

Pharynx

Plays a role in swallowing and breathing

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs

Skeletal Muscle

Features include: Striated fibers and voluntary movements

Smooth muscle

Features include: Non-striated Fibers and involuntary movements

Cardiac Muscle

Features include: Striated Fibers, involuntary movement (blood pumping), and containing intercalated discs (high conc. of gap junctions allowing for electrical communication between cardiac muscle cells)

Fetal blood circulatory terms

Ductus Venosus - Allows blood to bypass the liver
Ductus Arteriosus - Allows blood to bypass the lungs
Foramen Ovale - Allows oxygenated blood from the placenta to bypass the lungs

Prezygotic Isolation

Occurs when two species cannot mate with each other or produce fertile offspring because of one of the following:
- Habitat isolation
- Behavioral Isolation
- Gametic Isolation
- Mechanical Isolation
- Temporal Isolation

Postzygotic Isolation

Occurs when two species can mate and produce offspring, but the offspring cannot produce their own fertile offspring. Different types:
- Hybrid inviability
- Hybrid sterility
- Hybrid breakdown

Kidney functions

Controls the production of RBC
Removal of waste products from the body
Regulation of electrolyte levels
Regulation of the body’s fluid balance

Tricuspid valve

Located between the right atrium and right ventricle that contains unoxygenated blood.

Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

Located between the right ventricle and lungs and contains unoxygenated blood.

Bicuspid valve (mitral Valve)

Located between the left atrium and left ventricle and contains oxygenated blood

Aortic Semilunar Valve

Located between the left ventricle and aorta and contains oxygenated blood