Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- Stimulates follicle maturation, spermatogenesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates ovulation, testosterone synthesis
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete corticosteroids
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates thyroid to produce thyroid hormones
Prolactin
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- stimulates milk production and secretion
Endorphins
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
- Inhibit the perception of pain in the brain
Growth hormone
Hormone from the Anterior Pituitary
-Stimulates bone and muscle growth, lipolysis
Oxytocin
Hormone from the Hypothalamus; stores in the posterior pituitary
- Stimulates uterine counteractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation
Vasopressin (ADH)
Hormone from the Hypothalamus; stores in the posterior pituitary
- Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
Thyroid hormones (T4, T3)
Hormone from the thyroid (which is related to iodine)
- Stimulates metabolic activity
Calcitonin
Hormone from the thyroid (which is related to iodine)
- Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Parathyroid hormone
Hormone from the Parathyroid
- Increases blood calcium level
Glucocorticoids
Hormone from the Adrenal Cortex
- Increases blood glucose level, decrease protein synthesis
Mineralocorticoids
Hormone from the Adrenal Cortex
- Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Hormone from the Adrenal medulla
- Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Glucagon
Hormone from the Pancreas
- Simulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and increases blood glucose
Insulin
Hormone from the Pancreas (not a steroid)
- Lowers blood glucose and increases glycogen stores
Somatostatin
Hormone from the Pancreas
- Suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
Testosterone
Hormone from the testes
- Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
Estrogen
Hormone from the Ovary/Placenta
- Maintains female secondary sexual charcteristics
Melatonin
Hormone from the Pineal
- Maintains circadian rhythms
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Hormone from the heart
- Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Thymosin
Hormone from the thymus
- Stimulates T lymphocyte development
Peptide Hormones
Mechanism of hormone action via secondary messengers
Steroid Hormones
Mechanism of hormone action via Hormone/receptor binding to DNA
Monoamine Hormones
Mechanism of hormone action both:
Hormone/receptor binding to DNA
secondary messengers
What is the overall reaction of photosynthesis?
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2
What are the products of the Light Reactions in photosynthesis?
NADPH, ATP, Oxygen, and Protons
What are the products of the Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions)?
C3H6O3 (Glyceraldehyde or G3P), Water, NADP, ADP, Inorganic Phosphate
What are the four stages of Early Development
Cleavage: Mitotic divisions
Implantation: Embryo implants during blastulation
Gastrulation: Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm formation
Neurulation: Germ layers develop a nervous system
What does the Ectoderm form?
-Nervous system
-epidermis
-lens of eye
-inner ear
What does endoderm form?
-lining of digestive tract
-Lungs
-Liver
-Pancreas
What does the Mesoderm form?
-Muscles
-Skeleton
-Circulatory System
-Gonads
-Kidneys
What does Aldosterone do in Homeostasis?
Steroid signaling molecule that stimulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion, increasing water reabsorption, blood volume and blood pressure
- Secreted from the Adrenal cortex
- Regulated by Renin-angiotensin system
What role does ADH play in Homeostasis?
-Increases collecting duct’s permeability to water to increase water reabsorption
-Secreted from posterior pituitary with high (solute) in the blood
What are the 7 roles of the Liver in Homeostasis?
Gluconeogenesis
Processing of nitrogenous waste (urea)
Detoxification of wastes/chemicals/drugs
Storage of Iron and vitamin B12
Synthesis of Bile and blood proteins
Beta-oxidation of fatty acids to ketones
Interconversion of carbs, fat, and amino acids
Ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)
Important protein that captures CO2 from the environment
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO)
protein responsible for fixation of CO2 to form a six carbon compound for glucose production
Pepsin
Produced in the Gastric Glands (chief cells) for the stomach:
-Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
-Protein digestion
Trypsin
Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine
-Hydrolyze specific peptide bonds
-Converts chymotrypsinogen
-Protein Digestion
Chymotrypsin
Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
-Protein Digestion
Carboxypeptidase
Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Terminal peptide bond at carboxyl
-Protein Digestion
Aminopeptidase
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at amino
-Protein Digestion
Dipeptidases
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
-Protein Digestion
Enterokinase
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
-Protein Digestion
Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
Produced in the Salivary Glands for the Mouth:
-Hydrolyzes Starch into Maltose
-Carbohydrate Digestion
Pancreatic Amylase
Produced in the Pancreas for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzed Starch into Maltose
-Carbohydrate Digestion
Maltase
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Maltose into 2 Glucose
-Carbohydrate Digestion
Sucrase
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Sucrose into Glucose + Fructose
-Carbohydrate Digestion
Lactase
Produced in the Intestinal Glands for the Small Intestine:
-Hydrolyzes Lactose into Glucose + Galactose
- Carbohydrate Digestion
Double Fertilization
-Mostly occurs in Angiosperms
-Two male gametes combine with the female gametophyte
Endosperm
Food-storing tissue in the developing plant embryo
Meiosis 1
Two pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads during prophase 1
Crossing over leads to genetic recombination in Prophase 1
Meiosis 2
Identical to mitosis but without replication
Meiosis occurs in both spermatogenesis (sperm formation) and oogenesis (egg formation)
The sequence of embryonic development
Zygote → Morula → Blastula → Gastrula
The union of male and female gametes produces a zygote. The zygote undergoes many cleavages, or divisions, first forming a morula, a solid ball of cells. The next stage in embryonic development is the blastula, which is a hollow ball of cells. The blastula invaginates to form a gastrula with three germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (moving outwards from the inside).
Operant Conditioning
method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior
Pavlovian Conditioning
Classical Conditioning, associating a biological response to an environmental stimulus
Single nondisjunction
Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. Results in:
-Miscarriage
-more or less chromosomes
-Down syndrome
Insect Gas Exchange
Occurs through the Tracheae
Mammal Characteristics
-Milk producing
-Three bones in the middle ear
-Heterodont Dentition (different types of teeth)
-Sebaceous glands (oil producing)
Poikilothermic
Organisms with varying internal temperature
Brain Division (3 sections)
-Prosencephalon (forebrain)
-Mesencephalon (midbrain)
-Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Excretion organs
Skin
Lungs
Liver
Kidney
Large Intestine
Chiasmata
Structure formed when crossing over occurs
tRNA
Function:
Acts as an intermediary during protein synthesis.
Carries a specific amino acid based on its anticodon sequence.
Structure:
Unique cloverleaf-shaped structure.
Contains anticodon loop, acceptor arm, and D-arm/T-arm.
Fetal blood circulation characteristics
Blood is oxygenated at the placenta
Blood is shunted away from the lungs by the ductus arteriosus
Fetal lungs receive very little blood
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for Oxygen than adult hemoglobin
Osteoblast
Builds bone
Osteoclast
Breaks down bone tissue
The 4 types of Animal Communication
Visual - Body language, facial expressions, coloration
Auditory - Vocalization, calls, screams, songs
Olfactory (chemical) - scent to portray territoriality, fear, aggression, or mating interest
Upper & Lower Epidermis
Thin layers of cell that protect the leaf from and damage and prevent water loss.
Contains the cuticle, stoma, and guard cells
Mesophyll
A layer of photosynthetic cells between the upper and lower epidermis contains most of the leaf’s chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis.
Cuticle
Layer of wax covering the leaves’ upper and lower surfaces
Stoma
Contain pores called stomata on the bottom surface, allowing gases to enter and exit the leaf.
Guard Cells
Stomata are regulated by guard cells, which open and close them in response to environmental conditions such as light, temperature, and humidity.
Turgid
A hypotonic condition that means full of water
Plasmolysis
Hypertonic condition that involves the shrinkage of the plasma membrane and pulls away from the cell wall due to water loss in the cell
Auxins
A plant specific hormone that increases cell growth and is related why plants growth opposite and with gravity.
Cytokinins
Plant hormone that increases cell division
Gibberellins
Plant hormone that increases cell growht
Ethylene
Plant hormone that increases the fruit ripening
Abscisic Acid
Plant hormone that decreases and inhibits cell growth
4 stages of the bacterial growth curve
Lag - adapting phase, preparing for replication
Exponential - exponential growth at maximum rates
Stationary - slowed growth rate, no longer increasing
Death - final phase, cells begin to die off
Transformation
Bacterium takes up DNA from its environment
Transduction
Genetic information is transferred from one organism to another by a virus or other agent
Conjugation
Sexual reproduction where two bacteria come together and exchange DNA using a pilus bridge.
The 2 types of joints
Ligament - Flexible band of tissue that attach bones to bones
Tendon - Flexible bands of tissue that attach muscles to bones
Epiglottis
Flap-like structure that prevent food or liquids from entering the airway
Pharynx
Plays a role in swallowing and breathing
Alveoli
Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs
Skeletal Muscle
Features include: Striated fibers and voluntary movements
Smooth muscle
Features include: Non-striated Fibers and involuntary movements
Cardiac Muscle
Features include: Striated Fibers, involuntary movement (blood pumping), and containing intercalated discs (high conc. of gap junctions allowing for electrical communication between cardiac muscle cells)
Fetal blood circulatory terms
Ductus Venosus - Allows blood to bypass the liver
Ductus Arteriosus - Allows blood to bypass the lungs
Foramen Ovale - Allows oxygenated blood from the placenta to bypass the lungs
Prezygotic Isolation
Occurs when two species cannot mate with each other or produce fertile offspring because of one of the following:
- Habitat isolation
- Behavioral Isolation
- Gametic Isolation
- Mechanical Isolation
- Temporal Isolation
Postzygotic Isolation
Occurs when two species can mate and produce offspring, but the offspring cannot produce their own fertile offspring. Different types:
- Hybrid inviability
- Hybrid sterility
- Hybrid breakdown
Kidney functions
Controls the production of RBC
Removal of waste products from the body
Regulation of electrolyte levels
Regulation of the body’s fluid balance
Tricuspid valve
Located between the right atrium and right ventricle that contains unoxygenated blood.
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
Located between the right ventricle and lungs and contains unoxygenated blood.
Bicuspid valve (mitral Valve)
Located between the left atrium and left ventricle and contains oxygenated blood
Aortic Semilunar Valve
Located between the left ventricle and aorta and contains oxygenated blood