unit 2: biological basis for behavior

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121 Terms

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Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

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Paul Broca

Discovered area in left frontal lobe responsible for language production

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Carl Wernicke

Discovered area in left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension

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Roger Sperry

Pioneered split-brain research by cutting the corpus callosum to treat epileptic seizures

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Michael Gazzaniga

pioneered split-brain research

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Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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Cell body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life support center (also called "soma")

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Dendrites

A neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

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Axon

Fiber that extends off of the cell body that carries an electrical signal (action potential) to communicate with other neurons or to muscles and glands

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Myelin sheath

Fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed as the electrical signal travels down the axon

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Glial cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

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Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; can be from the environment or from other neurons

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Refractory period

In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

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All-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing; increasing level of stimulation does not increase action potential intensity

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Synapse

The junction between the axon tip (terminal) of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers triggered by the action potential that are released from the axon terminals of the sending neuron; they travel across the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron, influencing the receiving neuron to trigger an action potential; faster acting but shorter lasting than hormones

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Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron back into the axon terminals

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Endorphins

"Morphine within"; natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

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Agonist

A molecule (drug or other chemical) that increases a neurotransmitter's action; may increase the production of a neurotransmitter or block reuptake

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Antagonist

A molecule (drug or other chemical) that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action; may block the receptor site on the dendrite

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Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

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Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

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Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (PNS → CNS)

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Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands (CNS → PNS)

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Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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Somatic nervous system

Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles (voluntary movement)

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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Division of the PNS that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (involuntary functions); divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic

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Sympathetic nervous system

Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy ("fight or flight")

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Parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy ("rest and digest")

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Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as a knee-jerk response; occurs in the spinal cord (no brain involvement)

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Endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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Hormones

"Slow" chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue; slower acting but longer lasting than neurotransmitters

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Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline) that help arouse the body in times of stress

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Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland; controlled by the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands ("master gland")

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Lesion

Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Amplified recording of the electrical activity in the outer-layers of the brain; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp; looks at brain FUNCTION

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Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

Brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity; looks at brain FUNCTION

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Computed tomography (CT) scan

Series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain; looks at brain STRUCTURE

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Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

Visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose gives while the brain performs a task; looks at brain FUNCTION

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; looks at brain STRUCTURE

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Functional MRI (fMRI)

Technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; looks at brain STRUCTURE and FUNCTION

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Brainstem

Oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

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Medulla

Base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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Thalamus

Located at the top of the brainstem, it is the brain's sensory control center ("sensory switchboard"); it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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Reticular formation

Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal and focus

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Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include fine motor control, coordination, posture, and balance

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Limbic system

Neural system that includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus and sits around the brainstem and below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

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Amygdala

Two small neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion

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Hypothalamus

Neural structure lying below the thalamus in the limbic system; it plays a direct role in drives (eating, drinking, body temperature, sex drive), helps govern the endocrine system through the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion, pleasure, and reward

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Hippocampus

Neural structure in the limbic system that helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

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Cerebral cortex

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center; also called the cerebrum

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Frontal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex directly behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movements (motor cortex), and in making plans and judgment, as well as personality

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Parietal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position (somatosensory cortex)

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Occipital lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields (visual cortex)

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Temporal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas (auditory cortex), each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

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Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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Somatosensory cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

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Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; they are involved in higher-order functions such as thinking, remembering, planning, and speaking; takes up majority of cerebral cortex

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Plasticity

Brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

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Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

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Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

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Split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them; used to treat epileptic seizures in extreme cases

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Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

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Cognitive neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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Dual processing

Principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

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Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

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Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

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Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

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Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

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Behavior genetics

Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

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Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

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Identical (monozygotic) twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

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Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share prenatal environment

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Heritability

Statistical technique measuring the extent to which variation among individuals in a group can be attributed to their differing genes

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Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

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Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

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Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

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Natural selection

Principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed onto future generations

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Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

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Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness

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REM sleep

a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreaming often occurs; also known as "paradoxical sleep" because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active and the brain looks awake

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Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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NREM sleep

encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

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Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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Hypnagogic sensations

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep; occur in NREM-1

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Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep in NREM-3

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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying feelings of sleepiness

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Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep

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Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; may lapse directly into REM sleep at inopportune times

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Sleep apnea

Sleep disorder in which breathing stops temporarily during sleep and there are repeated momentarily awakening

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Night terrors

Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 and are seldom remembered

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Dream

Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

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Manifest content

According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered storyline of a dream

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Latent content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream