Psych Final

Experimental Method

(widely used un Psychology) - in true experiments the following is true; \n - random diviosn is used to split people into two or more groups / conditions. \n - an independent variable is manipulated \n - a dependent variable is measured \n - all other variables are controlled as much as possible

Correlational Method

(equally used in psychology and sociology) - uses a regressional line to demonstrate the relationship between two variables.

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Independent Variable

variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

a ( measured ) variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

Directionality Problem

(also known as the reverse causality problem) a problem that occurs when researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

Third Variable Problem

there is an infinite amount of added variables, which could contribute to the cause-and-effect illusion. this means that a correlation between two variables may stem from both variables being influenced by some third (often ignored) variable

Meta-Analysis

"Analysis of Analyses", a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies in order to calculate overall effect size.

Random Assignment

random splitting of groups or random assigning things to groups.

Manipulation of the Independent Variable

If groups are alike in all aspects except for variation created by changing independent variable; any differences in the dependent variable are due to this.

Availabiltiy Heuristic

heuristic where choices are based on quick easly accessible examples, more readily available information carries more weight

Counterfactual Thinking

imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't

Magical Thinking

ideas that one's thoughts or behaviors have control over specific situations

Negativity Bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

Priming

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A situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory

Representative Bias

Make best guess based on similarity to typical patterns or general types. Assumes people fit neatly into a relatively few clear-cut categories.

Schema

Mental frameworks centering around a specific theme that help us to organize social information.

Self-Fufilling Prophecy

when expectations about a behavior act to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur

Social Perception

(also known as person perception) The process through which we seek to know and understand others

Causal Attribution

a judgment or inference about the cause of someone's behavior. (stable vs unstable and internal vs external)

Actor Obserever Effect

the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes, while attributing our own behavior to external causes

Fundamental Attribution Error

the overuse of internal attributions for other's problems

Self-Serving Bias

the overuse of external attributions for our problems

Impression Managment 

things we do to present ourselves favorably

Augmenting Principle

( unexpected ) When a factor which might facilitate a behavior and one which might inhibit the same behavior are both present and the behavior occurs, we add weight to the behavior. ( more weight is added when one goes against expected behavior)

Discounting Principle

( expected ) The importance of one particular explanation for a given behavior is reduced to the extent that there are other possible explanations for that behavior. ( taken less seriously, if you go with what's expected )

Persuasion

the active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message

Central Route to Persuasion

(depends on actual argument) high elaboration, hence degree of persuasion depends on quality of arguments.

Peripherial Route to Persuasion

low elaboration, hence distraction allows attitude change with weak arguments and shallow processing.

Cognitive Dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

Elaboration Likelihood Model

identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

Reactance

doing the opposite in order to protect ones freedom

Forewarning

having the knowledge that someone is going to try to persuade you ( reduces persuasion )

Social Comparision

evaluating one's opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others

Social Learning

Learning through observing others.

Classical Condtioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Operant Learning

Learning by which the subject learns through positive and negative reinforcements

ABC Model of Attitudes

affect(emotion), behavior(action), cognition (thinking)

Discrimination

Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group.

Racism

Belief that one race is superior to another

Sexism

the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other

Illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Social Categorization

the classification of oneself and others, often unconsciously or without intention, as members of social groups on the basis of shared attributes such as ethnicity, physical features, or even psychological traits

In-Group

a social group to which one belongs

Out-Group

any group with which an individual does not identify

sterotype

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief a group of people.

Tokenism

When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual (small benefit, large cost)

Ultimate Attributional Error

the tendency to attribute positive behaviors to internal traits within one's own group, but negative behaviors to the internal traits of the out group.

Bogus Pipeline

a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions

Realistic Conflict Theory

As competition escalates, groups will have increasingly negative views of each other

Robber's Cave Study

22 boys split into two groups. One team vs the other in competitions to receive prize. Being in a competition with each other, both teams became more aggressive against the opposing team.

Affect Centered Model of Attraction

A conceptual framework in which attraction is assumed to be based on positive and negative emotions. These emotions can be aroused directly by another person or simply associated with that person. The emotional arousal can also be enhanced or mitigated by cognitive processes.

Attitude Similarity

the extent to which two individuals share the same attitudes

Balance Theory

a theory holding that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments

Need for Affiliation

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships (trait = stable personality trait and state = changing / temporary / situational )

Proximity

relationships form when people have a certain physical ( or electronic ) closeness to each other ( leads to attraction )

Repeated Exposure

frequent contact with any mildly negative, neutral, or positive stimulus results in an increasingly positive evaluation of that stimulus (can lead to attraction )

Physical Attractiveness

Usually the first thing that draws people in ( in physical relationships )

Inclusion of Self in Other

The degree to which our partner is included in our self-concept.

Social Exchange Theory

We seek out and maintain those relationships in which the rewards exceed the costs.

Parent-Child Seperation

Protest - "crying" \n Despair - "quiet" \n Detachment - "independence"

Parent-Child Attatchment

Attachment refers to the strong emotional bond between infants and primary caregivers

Mary Ainsworth

Secure - develops from responsive caregiving \n Insecure - stems from inattentive or abusive parenting

Strange Situation Test

A parent-infant "separation and reunion" procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment

Adult Attachment Styles

Secure - (self and others viewed positively) \n Preoccupied - (self negative, others positive) \n Fearful-Avoidant - (self positive, others negative) \n Dismissive-Avoidant - (self and others negative)

Sternberg's Triangular Theory

intimacy, passion, commitment

Hendrick and Hendrick

The two most fundamental types of love are Passionate love and Companionate love. \n Over the course of a relationship, passionate love might start out very strong, but soon give way to companionate love that grows and grows over time. \n Relationships change over time.

Group Cohesiveness

qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members

Conformity

going along with unwritten social norms, customs or more

Compliance

going along with a direct requestion from one person to another

Obedience

going along with a direct order from one person to another

Milgram's Obedience Study

An experiment in which Stanley Milgram found that people will usually obey an authority, even if they might think what they are doing is wrong.

Informational Social Influence

the influence other people have on us because we want to be right

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Door in the Face

people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request

Foot in the Door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Low Balling

Social the persuader gets you to commit to an action then before you perform it the "cost increases”

Social Norms

San expected standard of behavior and belief established and enforced by a group

Helping Behavior

any act that is intended to benefit another person

Alturism

the principle or practice of unselfish concern for or devotion to the welfare of others

Alturistic Personality

a collection of personality traits, such as empathy, that render some people more helpful than others

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Diffusion of Responsibilty

the more people there are, the less likely that someone will do something because you will think that someone else will act

Social Comparision

evaluating one's opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others

Fear of Social Blunder

We do not want to look foolish in front of others

Epathic Joy Hypothesis

motivated by the positive feeling one gets, after engaing in prosocial behavior

Empathy-Alturism Hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

Genetic Determism Model

help others who are genetically similar to ourselves to preserve our gene pool

Negative State Relief Model

selfish desire to make themselves feel better, after engaing in prosocial behavior

Moral Integrity

the motivation to be moral and to actually engage in moral behavior

Pluaristic Ignorance

The tendency to think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way when they are not. Fear of social blunder leads to social comparison, leads to audience inhibition effect

Moriarity's 1974 Beach Blanket study

\- Prior commitment \n where people on a beach and New York either ask somebody, would you keep an eye on my blanket while I go up to the concession stand or they don't ask if they don't ask. And they put out a radio on their blanket and somebody comes along and steals it. You know, people look at it and watch the man steal the blanket. Radio and don't do anything. But if that person who put the radio on the blanket says, hey, will you keep an eye on my things than people were far more likely to help.

Buss Aggression Machine

A machine that allows an experimenter to record a subject's level of state aggression in terms of the duration and intensity of an electric shock that the subject is prepared to give an accomplice

Catharsis

the reduction is the drive state following an aggressive act

Drive Theory

An unmet need - drive state - efforts to reduce the drive

Frustration Agression Hypothesis

Blocking of goal directed behavior -> frustration -> aggressionAggression, meditation, turn cheek, redirect

Excitation Transfer Theory

Arousal occurring in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reaction in later, unrelated situations

General Agression Model

Situational factors - frustration, attack, aggressive model, aggression cues, the presence of a weapon, discomfortPersonality factors - irritability, attitudes about violence, values about violence/ masculinity skills

Hostile Attributional Bias

the tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile

Displaced Agression

taking out one's frustrations on some less threatening or more available target

Type A Personality

personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious