Anatomy Exam Study Notes- Lilah

exam

• Homeostasis

• Maintaining a stable internal environment.

• Feedback loop:

• A biological mechanism where the output of a system amplifies or diminishes the original effect.

stem cell

• Undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cells

• Cell specialization

• The process where cells become specialized in structure and function.

• This allows for the development of different cell types that perform distinct roles within an organism.

• Levels of organization:

• Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems

tissue

• A group of similar cells performing a specific function.

organ

• A structure composed of different tissues working together.

organ system

• A group of organs working together to perform a specific function.

stress

condition causes disrupt in homeostasis

Four types of tissue

• Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

These tissues work together to form organs and systems within the body.

Epithelial tissue

A type of tissue that covers body surfaces, serving as a protective barrier and involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation.

ex. skin

connective tissue

A type of tissue that supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs in the body; it includes bone, adipose, and blood.

ex. cartilage, bone

muscle tissue

A type of tissue that enables movement through contraction, primarily found in the heart, organs, and skeletal muscles.

nervous tissue

A type of tissue responsible for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body, consisting of neurons and glial cells.

Positive feedback

Enhances or amplifies changes; the output intensifies the initial stimulus. Example: childbirth, where contractions increase in intensity and frequency due to oxytocin.

Negative feedback

Reduces or reverses changes; the output reduces the initial stimulus to maintain stability. Example: regulation of body temperature or blood glucose levels.

compact bone

• Dense outer layer of bone.

• Medullary cavity:

• Cavity within the bone containing bone marrow.

• Haversian canal:

• Channels in bone that contain blood vessels and nerves.

red marrow

• Bone marrow where red blood cells are produced.

yellow marrow

• Bone marrow consisting mainly of fat cells.

cartilage

• Flexible connective tissue found in joints.

spongy bone

• Porous bone tissue containing red marrow.

• Periosteum

• Outer covering of bone

• Ossification:

• The process of bone formation.

, osteoblast

bone forming cells

osteocyte

mature bone cells

• osteoclast

bone resorbing cells

joint

• Where two bones meet.

ligaments

• Connective tissue that connects bone to bone

• Arthritis

inflammation of a joint, causing pain and stiffness.

• Osteoporosis:

• Loss of bone density.

• Fractures

• Breaks in the bone.

• Muscle

• A tissue composed of cells capable of contracting

• Voluntary control

• Consciously controlled.

involuntary

not consciously controlled

smooth muscle

• nvoluntary muscle found in the walls of internal organs.

• Cardiac muscle

• Involuntary muscle found in the heart.

Skeletal Muscle

• Voluntary muscle attached to bones.

• Striations

• The banding pattern seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle.

• Motor neuron

• A nerve cell that controls muscle contraction.

• Neuromuscular junction:

• The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

• Actin:

• A protein that forms the thin filaments in muscle fibers.

myosin

• A protein that forms the thick filaments in muscle fibers.

neurotransmitter

• A chemical messenger that transmits signals across a neuromuscular junction

• Cytokine

• Signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation and hematopoiesis

protein

• A molecule consisting of many amino acids

tendon

• Connective tissue that connects muscle to bone

strain

injury to muscle or tendon

tendonitis

inflammation of a tendon

myocardium

muscular tissue of the heart

atrium

an upper chamber of the heart- receives blood from veins and pumps it into ventricles.

ventricle

lower chamber of heart

• pumps blood to the lungs or body.

valve

a structure that prevents blood backflow

pulmonary circulation

the pathway of blood flow from the heart to the lungs and back, allowing for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• Systemic circulation

• : Circulation of blood between the heart and the rest of the body.The pathway through which oxygenated blood is delivered to body tissues and deoxygenated blood returns to the heart.

artery

• Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the tissues and organs.

vein

A blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart, except for pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs.

• Capillary

A small blood vessel where the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs between blood and tissues.

• Respiratory Tract

• Mouth/Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

• Vocal cords:

• Folds of tissue in the larynx that vibrate to produce sound.

• Diaphragm:

• A muscle that helps with breathing. contracts to pull in air

accessory organs

salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, pancreas

stages of digestion

• briefly define

  • Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination

bolus

a soft mass of chewed food that is swallowed.

chyme

the simifluid mass of partly digested food that is formed in the stomach and intestines during digestion.

peristalsis

the wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

enzymes

chemical digestion that break down food, ex. amylase, pepsin, protease, lipase

macromolecules

large complex molecules essential for biological functions, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Ex. Carbohydrates, proteins lipase, and nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, serving as a primary energy source for the body.

Protein

large, complex molecules made of amino acids that are essential for building and repairing tissues, enzymes, and hormones.

Lipid

a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, including fats, oils, and phospholipids, that play vital roles in energy storage, insulation, and cellular structure.

Nucleic Acids

molecules that store and transmit genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

Monomers

the basic building blocks of polymers, which include amino acids for proteins, nucleotides for nucleic acids, and monosaccharides for carbohydrates.