Envi 101 Exam 3 Review

Geology

Geology

The study of dynamic processes taking place on the earth’s surface and in its interior

Three Zones of Earth

Core, Mantle, Crust

Mineral

Naturally occurring chemical element or inorganic compound that exists as a crystalline solid

Rock

Naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals

Sedimentary rock

Made of sediments (pieces of other rocks) and accumulates in layers

Metamorphic rock

Existing rock that’s subjected to high temperatures, pressures, fluids, or a combination. ex. marble and slate

Igneous rock

Forms under intense heat and pressure and then cools, begins as magma

Tectonic plates: Divergent boundary

Plates moving away from each other, ex. earthquakes and volcanoes

Tectonic plates: Convergent boundary

plates colliding/coming together, ex. earthquakes, mountain ranges

Tectonic plates: Transform plate boundary

Plates sliding past each other, grinding against each other, ex. volcanoes, earthquakes

Ore

Solid material that contains profitable concentration of a mineral

High-grade vs. low-grade ore

High grade- high mineral concentration

Low grade- low mineral concentration

Trends with rare earth minerals

China has 1/3 of rare earth mineral reserves but accounts for 90% of production

Fossil fuels

Oil, coal, and natural gas. Exists in finite amounts

Surface and strip mining techniques

Removes shallow deposits and extracts deposits in horizontal beds close to the Earth’s surface (majority of coal is mined from surface mining)

Open-Pit mining- large, deep, open-air pits

Mountaintop removal- uses explosives to remove top of mountain to expose minerals

Environmental issues with mining

Tailings (materials left over after separating the valuable part of the ore from the rest) causes waste, smelting (using heat or chemicals to extract the mineral from the ore) causes air and water pollution

Human health issues with mining

Miners can develop black lung

Gold mining case study in the Ivory Coast

The Ivory Coast (top cocoa producer) was illegally mining gold, it was unsafe, used toxic mercury, the money made from the gold was not being put back into the community

Solutions to Mining

Recycle

Waste less

Use less

Find a substitute

Do without

Biomining- using living organisms to mine, potentially how we can mine in space

Volcanoes

Release molten rock from Earth’s interior, ex. Mt. Vesuvius/Pompeii

Earthquakes

Breakage and shifting of rocks, energy accumulates over time and is released in the form of vibrations. Occurs at faults

seismic waves- vibrations in the crust

focus- where it originates

magnitude- severity, measured by the Richter Scale

Ex. 2010 earthquake in Haiti. but largest ever recorded was in Chile in 1960

Tsunamis

Earthquakes on the ocean floor, a series of huge waves generated when the sea floor suddenly rises or drops

Ex. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2011 Japan Tsunami (damaged nuclear reactors)

Glaciers

Sheets of ice formed from deep packed snow, most occur on land but can extend out to sea, when they melt or recede they form distinct landforms…

Mounded hills- moraines, drumlins

Bodies of water- Kettle lakes

Difference between weather and climate

Weather- short term, area specific. Includes temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, cloudiness

Climate- long term

Atmosphere

Composition of gases, 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen

Layers of the atmosphere

Troposphere- closest to Earth’s surface, supports life

Stratosphere- where the ozone layer is located

Ozone layer

Filters 95% of harmful UV radiation, currently on the mend and healing

Greenhouse gases

CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor

traps heat in the atmosphere like a blanket

we need greenhouse gases to keep the Earth warm enough to support life, but we have emitted too much now

Influences on regional climate and seasonal change

At poles of the Earth, the angle at which sun hits Earth is greater and the light spans over a larger distance… temperatures decrease

At the equator, there is no angle from the light, it is direct… temperatures increase

Earth orbits around the sun in 365 days and rotates on its axis in 24 hours, hence seasons and days

Earths tilt puts certain regions closer to the sun than others, so summer when tilted near and winter when tilted away

Hadley cells

Large atmospheric cells or circulations where air rises at the equator and then sinks at medium latitudes, influences precipitation patterns, the reason why it rains so much at the equator

air is colder away from the equator, cold air is denser than warm air, cool air flows to equator, warm air holds more moisture than cold air and and pulls moisture from surface, cold air rushes to equator, forces warm air to rise, warm air rises and cools, now can’t cold as much water, so it rains

Urban heat island effect

Urbanized areas that experience higher temperatures than outlying areas

Albedo effect

How much sunlight is reflected from Earth’s surface. Light surfaces reflect more than dark, ice has a high albedo effect, cities have a lot of pavement and such absorbing heat. solutions? change the color of roofs, paint them, plant trees, etc.

Methods scientists use to understand climate and climate change

Ice cores, real-time atmospheric CO2 measuring, annual tree rings

How we know recent change is caused by humans

Observed changes in temperature are consistent with human (anthropogenic) and natural causes

Effects of climate change

Increasing temperatures, land-based glaciers and sea ice are melting, sea levels rising, too hot to grow normal crops

Paris Agreement and recent discussion at COP27

Each country expected to lower greenhouse gas emissions, goal was to limit Earth’s average temperature increase to less than 2 degrees C, COP27 discussed issues with who will pay for funds for damages from climate change, changed temperature change to 1.5 degrees instead of 2

Solutions to climate change

Clean energy tax credits- you get money for being more energy-efficient

EPA regulations on power plants- lessen pollutants emitted

Auto industry regulations- switching to EV vehicles

Carbon tax- charge people emitting carbon

Carbon cap and trade- government gives companies a permit on how much carbon they can emit, if they emit less than their max they can trade their unused carbon emission permits to other companies

Geoengineering- trying to lesson CO2 absorbed in atmosphere, shooting seawater into air???

Clean Air Act

Set standards and limit for certain pollutants

6 major pollutants

Particulate matter ((dust, soot, pollen, damages lung tissue if inhaled), sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, lead

Primary vs. secondary pollutants

Primary- released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form

Secondary- converted to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are formed by chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact

Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid

colorless, corrosive, can form sulfuric acid if mixed with water—>acid rain

Nitrogen oxides

mainly emitted from electrical power, transportation, and fertilizers, can react with water to create acid rain

Pollutants and fire

Carbon monoxide and particulate matter are created in wildfires

Trends with acid rain

We have seen a major reduction in acid rain since 1986

Indoor air pollutants

Tobacco smoke, e-cigarettes, indoor wood burning (a concern in less developed countries)

Ozone and lead as pollutants

Ozone- when closer to the ground, it can damage vegetation and cause breathing problems

Lead- leaded gasoline was the biggest emitter, exposure is bad, children are especially sensitive, effects nervous system

Effects of air pollution on human health

Causes asthma, chronic bronchitis (inflammation of lungs), and emphysema (permanently constricted airways)

Solutions to air pollution

Rely more on renewables, getting at the source of emissions by putting filters at source (on smokestacks, for example)

Effect of clean air legislation

It works! Emission controls and cap and trade with sulfur dioxide, reduces emitted pollutants

Water breakdown

97.6% of all water is saltwater in oceans

2.4% is freshwater, 87% of which is in ice and glaciers

Hydrologic cycle processes/how humans effect it

evaporation- liquid to gas

precipitation- gas to liquid

surface runoff

we take water and move it around, we overwater plants, don’t use water efficiently, we use up our sources of water and we cause glaciers and snow to melt

Rain shadow effect

explains why one side of a mountain is arid and one is moist with lots of precipitation

warm winds pick up moisture, air rises as flowing up the wayward side of mountain and cools, can’t hold moisture so it rains, winds warm up again as flowing down the leeward side, warmer winds pick up moisture from air making this side even more arid

Zone of aeration

upper level of soil, holds air and water

Zone of saturation

filled with water

Water table

top of zone of saturation/groundwater layer, falls and rises based on rainfall

Aquifer

Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock below the water table

Reservoirs for groundwater, we often make wells for the reserved aquifer water

Problem with groundwater

US is using groundwater up far too quickly, mostly for agricultural

Ogallala Aquifer spans 8 agricultural states and is being used up

land is sinking because we take so much groundwater

The Great Salt Lake, why it’s drying up, effects, what can be done

Water is being diverted away from the lake for development and agriculture, the lake bed is full of arsenic and copper, if it dries up the metals will get into the air and cause health issues, also it’s a habitat for birds, to fix it, policy, rationing water, stop allowing development, wear gas masks

Water out West

The West is facing bad water shortages

Water conservation methods

Recycle water, desalinization to remove salt, sponge cities-lessening blacktop and increasing vegetation to hold more water, cloud seeding- sending planes to force precipitation to fall by releasing silver iodide into air

Water pollution

any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses

Point vs. nonpoint source pollution

point source- at a specific point, ex. sewage, power plant pollution

nonpoint source- scattered pollution, not a specific source. ex. field runoff, fertilized lawn runoff

Types of water pollutants

infections agents (living pollutants like bacteria, viruses, and parasites), organic/inorganic chemical, radioactive materials, sediment, plant nutrients, etc.

Dead zones

What causes them- eutrophication, not enough oxygen to support fish so they die

Gulf of Mexico-abundance of nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural runoff from the areas surrounding the Mississippi River accumulates in the Gulf of Mexico

Prevention- planting trees as buffers

Clean Water Act (1972)

national pollution discharge elimination system, upgrade municipal sewage treatment plants, states establish total maximum daily loads, led to significant improvements in surface water quality

“How’s My Waterway” from the EPA

Tells you about the conditions of your local waterways

Critiques of bottled water

Usually just bottled city water, chemicals from plastic can leech into water, increased waste, less strict standards for bottled water than municipal water

Upper Susquehanna Coalition

plants trees along farms to absorb nutrients and lessen runoff, builds a buffer

Municipal wastewater treatment

Primary treatment- physically separating large solids and sludge, uses screens, filters, sediment tanks

Secondary treatment- bacteria and microorganisms catch organic materials, a biological way to break down organic material

Other methods of water treatment

Waterhealth International, duckweed, UV light treatment

Trends in US with energy usage

Increasing the use of renewable energy and decreasing nonrenewable but…

most of our energy is from nonrenewable sources, namely oil and natural gas, only 13% is renewable energy

Coal

solid fossil fuel formed from remains of land plants (peat)

low cost and plentiful

issues- dirty, air pollution, environmental damage extracting it, dangerous for workers

Oil

refining of crude oil, energy used for heat AND to make products such as plastics, paints, chemicals

Offshore drilling… 2010 oil spill in Gulf of Mexico

Canadian oil sands

digging for oil destroys vegetation

transported through pipelines

Natural gas

volatile gas particles sitting on top of oil and coal

chemicals leech into groundwater

extracted through fracking, forcing the fracturing of rock to extract gas

Nuclear power

controlled nuclear fission (splitting apart of nuclei, releases energy) reaction in a reactor

fuel rods and control rods

safety/risk, people generally apprehensive about it, Chernobyl and weapons

nonrenewable source because we have to mine for uranium

expensive

doesn’t produce greenhouse gases, produces a huge energy output

Transition to renewables

must become more efficient with energy while also transferring more to clean energy

passive house- takes advantage of natural light, good insulation, efficient light bulbs, double paned windows

Solar energy

photovoltaic cells convert solar energy to electric energy, can be installed almost anywhere, has become cheaper

solar grazing for agrivoltaics- let sheep graze on areas under panels, panels provide shade for sheep awww

Wind

Kinetic energy captured by wind turbines

China and US use lots of wind energy

offshore windfarms are off the coast

birds? avoid putting turbines in migratory routes, put censor to stop turning when birds flock, paint turbines

Hydropower

produces electricity from flowing water

good- no carbon emitted, produces lots of energy

bad- damming rivers messes up ecology of waterbodies, harms downstream flow of rivers, dams are costly, displaces individuals/community, destroys vegetation, saltwater corrosion and upkeep problems

Biomass

Brazil makes ethanol from sugarcane residue, 40% of corn produced in US used to make ethanol

takes lots of energy, usually from fossil fuels, to turn corn to ethanol

requires lots of land, should be used for food

monocultures

Geothermal

heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in Earth’s mantle

heat pump system- uses temperature differences between Earth’s surface and underground, similar to how fridges work, fluid carried through closed loop

energy efficient, no CO2 emissions or fossil fuels

could require drilling

Wind Water Solar

We can supply 80% of energy with wind water and solar