Environmental Science 2

A sedimentary rock can become an igneous rock.

true

The San Andreas Fault is an example of a 

a transform margin

Silicates are chemically weathered through

hydrolosis

The lithosphere contains

the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle

The most brittle layer of the Earth is the _________, which includes the crust within it.

Lithosphere

The solid layer in the Earth that is able to flow (slowly!) is called the

asthenosphere

Where is the asthenosphere located?

the upper layer of the mantle

Earth's core is

is composed of mainly iron

is under enormous pressure

produces the Earth's magnetic field

Volcanoes form in subduction zones because...

Water is released from sediments lowering the melting point of the overlying mantle.

The basic ingredients for soil are:

minerals, air, water, and living and dead organic material

A soil layer enriched in partially decayed organic matter found in mature soils is an…

A horizon

The best type of soil for agriculture is a

mollisol

Photosynthesis

uses CO2 and produces oxygen

Atmospheric Nitrogen…

must be converted into a more reactive form before it can be incorporated into plants

Earth’s different biomes are determined by…

regional differences in average temperature and annual precipitation

Tropical rainforests...

have very high species diversity

are underlain by oxisols

Coal deposits

are originally organic sediments in shallow, wet terrestrial environments

take 10's of millions of years to form from heat and pressure

Which of these nutrients contribute to eutrophication?

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Water has high surface tension because 

it is a polar molecule.

Ecological Succession involves

changing plant communities after a disturbance.

Steps of Natural selection in Order

1. genetic mutation produces new trait in offspring
2. new trait allows organism to outcompete other individuals for resources
3. individual passes new traits to future generations
4. individuals with new trait stop mating with individuals without trait

Annual net additions to atmospheric carbon are about half of the annual carbon emissions from human activities.

true

geological repository of carbon in coal from

terrestrial plant matter

geological repository of carbon in oil

marine organisms

geological repository of carbon in limestone

marine shells and skeletons

Phosphorus cycle has

no atmospheric component

Nitrogen

has to be fixed by bacteria to be available for use in living things

Carbon

main element in living things

Which of the following are true about coral reefs?

they have high species diversity

they contain symbiotic algae

they are one of the most productive ecosystems on Earth

Pollination is an example of

mutualism

Outer core

semisolid, made of molten iron, produces magnetic field

Inner core

solid

uppermost mantle

rigid, contains lithosphere

Asthenosphere

soft part of mantle, flows

**Pangaea**

the ancient supercontinent of 200 million years ago. Single landmass of all continents

**subduction zones**

associated with volcanic activity

Oceanic crust goes down cause

it's more dense (but thinner)

 Continental Crust won’t go down into the earth

because it's less dense, (but thicker)

**Continental crust**

35 km, density 2.7 g/cm3

**Oceanic crust**

 10km, density 3.08/cm3

What depresses the melting point of the mantle?

water

**Igneous**

formed from melting, crystallization, hot temp, high pressure

Sedimentary

weathering, sedimentation, lithification, low temp/pressure

Metamorphic

heat and pressure, recrystallization, med temp, med pressure

What is the core made of?

metallic, iron

What is the mantle made of?

silicates

What is the crust made of?

mainly silicates, also carbonates (mostly as sediments) and sulfides (ores)

Soil

 made of parent material (rock) that is weathered, type depends on rock type as well as plant matter, the livivng membrane of the planet

Soil recipe

minerals, air, water, organic material, organisms

**Physical Weathering**

breaking up the rock

\-ex. Wind, glaciers, freeze/thaw

\-most intensive in mountainous areas

Chemical Weathering

 acids in water break down minerals in rock

\-ex acid rain

\-most intensive in tropical areas

Hydrolysis

**CARBON SINK** acidic rain water converts minerals into ions bound to H+

\-acidic rainwater: H2O (atm) + CO2 (atm) -> H2CO3

dissolution

Acid rainwater dissolves limestone

Atmospheric co2 transferred to ocean deposited in sediments

O Horizon contains surface litter:

fallen leaves and partially decomposed organic debris

**A Horizon contains topsoil:**

organic matter (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals, dark rich soil

**E Horizon contains zone of leaching:**

 dissolved or suspended materials move downward, pale stripe in soil profile

**B Horizon contains subsoil:**

accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached down from A and E horizons

soil is orange from iron

C Horizon contains weathered parent material:

partially broken down inorganic minerals

chunks of rocks

R horizon contains bedrock:

impermeable layer, solid rock

**Grassland soil:** ***mollisol***

large a horizon, B horizon, c horizon, annual plants, dark and thick, fastest moving

**Forest soil:** ***podzol***:

a horizon shallow, b horizon quite big, c is deeper

**Desert soil:** ***aridisol***

very shallow A horizon, shallow B horizon, huge C horizon, slowest moving

Spodosols

(boreal forest) young, acidic soils of cool, moist conifer forests underlain by pale ash colored layer

Alfisols

 soils of deciduous forest, relatively fertile, medium brown, rich in aluminum and iron

Mollisols

 soft crumbly dark soils formed under grass

Oxicodal

rain forest

Lester series

deep well drained soils that formed in calcareous loamy glacial till plains and moraines

**Nutrient**

 elements used as building blocks in organic compounds needed to build living cells

Photosynthesis elements and processes

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Respiration

Biogeochemical cycles:

natural and anthropogenic

Anthropogenic

human origin

Coal takes

10 of millions of years to form

Oil takes

minimum of 50 million years

**Natural sources of carbon**

207 petagrams (10 to the 15th power)

**Natural Removals of carbon from the atmosphere**

210 peragrams

**The natural carbon cycle has a**

**net negative balance**

The natural carbon cycle absorbs

half of anthropogenic atmospheric

Main nitrogen reservoir

atmosphere

How do plants “fix” nitrogen?

legumes have nitrogen fixing bacteria living in nodules of their root tissue that breaks **the triple bond** and turns it into a form plants can use

Natural Nitrogen

196-733 teragrams (10 to the 12th power)

Anthropogenic nitrogen

170-445 teragrams

**Eutrophication**

the addition of excess nutrients to natural waters

Nitrogen reservoirs

biota, crust, atmosphere, fertilizer production

**Phosphorus**

 necessary for nucleic acids, cell membranes, teeth, bones, energy

Phosphorus reservoirs

biota and crust

Anthropogenic phosphorus

12 teragrams

Natural phosphorus

8 teragarms

Sulfur

important for proteins, comes from minerals

Sulfur reservoirs

seaspray, volcanos, coal plants

**Sulfuric acid**

lowers ph very much, creates acid rain

**Coral**

tropical water

nutrient poor water

\-algae symbiotic with coral (corals are animals that grow their own gardens)

\-nutrients are in organisms not in ground or water

\-to many nutrients in water causes algae to grow in water, shading the coral reefs

**SeaGrass Meadows**

more productive than coral reefs

\-ecosystem services

\-oxygen production

\-sea bottom stabilization

\-protects coats from erosion and storms

\-Carbon fixation

**-0.1% of ocean floor but 10% of carbon storage**

\-Fragile

\-sensitive to eutrophication, overfishing, sediment pollution, climate change

Upwelling zones

\-winds cause surface water to move away from shore 

\-surface water movement causes water to upwell from below

Tolerance limits

optimal range of temperature environment

**individual adaptation**

**acclimation**

\-adjustment to conditions

\-ie. Acclimation, dogs growing out winter coat

population adaptation

**evolution**

\-though genetic mutations creating new traits

\-natural selection

**What determines how long it will take a population to adapt?**

**The lifespan on the organism, as well as how often they breed**

**species**

small scale, adapted to microenvironment, small spatial scale

**ecosystem**

\-large scale. Adapted to macroenvironment, large spatial scale

\-ecosystems include biota(communities of organisms)and their physical environment (crust/ocean)

Primary Community Productivity

converting solar energy to chemical energy

-can be very productive, not necessarily efficient

\-measured in kilocalories