History and approaches

Origins of Psychology

• In 1879, Wundt, referred to as the ‘father of psychology’, was the first person to open a lab dedicated to psychology, marking the beginning of scientific psychology.

Introspection

• he aimed to describe the nature of human consciousness (the mind), under controlled conditions.

• This is known as introspection, which means ‘looking into’.

• Wundt used standardised procedures, and his main objective was to try and develop theories about mental processes (thoughts) such as language and perception.

• To do so, he asked participants to reflect on their own thoughts and describe them.

Structuralism

• he identified the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into basic structures

• for example thoughts, images and sensations, which were then recorded.

Strength of origins of psychology - scientific + standardised

• He recorded the introspections within a controlled lab environment

• made sure to standardise his procedures so that all patients received the same information and were tested in the same way.

• Therefore, he laid the foundation for future advancements as he could be considered as a forerunner to the later scientific approaches.

Weakness of origins of psychology - subjective and not scientific

• He relied on subjects sharing private thoughts, which themselves are subjective, and some may have even hidden some thoughts too.

• This therefore means that general laws cannot be established, which is an aim of science. Overall, introspection can be seen as being unscientific.
  

evaluation

The behaviourist approach

a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

Assumptions he behaviourist approach

• that all behaviour is learnt, as we are all born a blank slate meaning it is all dependent on the environment and not genes.

• It only concerns observable behaviour that can be measured, relying on lab studies to maintain control and objectivity, meaning thoughts/ mental processes are seen as irrelevant.

• also believes that learning processes are the same in all species so animals can replace humans in experiments.

• two forms of learning - operate and classical conditioning

Classical conditioning

Learning through association.

Research for classical conditioning - Pavolv

• Pavlov researched this by conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.

• He did this through associating food with the sound of a bell, eventually leading to just the bell (NS) creating the response of salivation.

Operant conditioning

• Learning through consequences, three types of these;

  1. positive reinforcement - receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed

  2. negative reinforcement - avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed

  3. punishment - an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour.

• Both positive and negative reinforcement increases the chances of a behaviour being repeated.

Research on operant conditioning - Skinner

• He put rats in boxes and whenever they activated a lever, a food pellet was rewarded. T

• his behaviour was then repeated due to the reward (positive reinforcement).

• Behaviour was also repeated when pressing the lever meant avoiding an unpleasant stimulus, like an electric shock (negative reinforcement).

Strength of the behaviourist approach - well controlled research but may be oversimplified

• They focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings.

• By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus and response units, any extraneous variables were removed allowing for a cause and effect relationship to be established.

• Therefore it has scientific credibility.

• However, this may be oversimplified as behaviour is complex.

Strength of the behaviourist approach - real world applications

• Can be seen in places like prisons and psychiatric units where things like token economies are used in order to reward good behaviour with privileges (operant conditioning).

• Also, this understanding of operant conditioning has allowed for the development of a treatment of phobias.

• Therefore this research has had a positive impact on society, making this research has value.    

Weakness of the behaviourist approach - ethical issues

• For example, skinner's rats were kept in harsh, cramped conditions and were kept underweight so that they were always hungry for research purposes.

• Moreover, in some of the experiments they were also electric shocked, which is animal cruelty.

• Therefore, the costs of this research outweigh the benefits of it
  
  

What is social learning theory

• combines learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

Assumptions of social learning theory

• behaviour is learnt

• people learn through the observation and imitation of others

• learning directly and indirectly through classical and operant conditioning.

Vicarious reinforcement

• Indirect reinforcement

• Learner observes a behaviour and the consequences

• Imitation occurs if the learner sees the behaviour being reinforced rather than punished

What are mediational processes and what are the 4 types?

Cognitive factors involved in learning

Attention - Extent to which we notice certain behaviour

Retention - How well the behaviour is remembered

Motor Reproduction - The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

Motivation - The will to perform the behaviour

Identification

• People (especially children) are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people they identify with.

• These are called role models - this process is known as modelling

• A person becomes a role model if they are seen to have similar characteristics to the observer and/ or are attractive and have high status.

• dont need to be psychically present

Research on Social Learning Theory - Bandura

• Children were either shown an adult behaving aggressively or non aggressively towards a bobo doll.

• Results showed that the children who had seen the aggressive adult were much more aggressive when given their own bobo doll later on and vice versa. 

Strength of SLT - emphasises importance of cognitive factors

• emphasises the importance of cognitive factors unlike the behaviourist approach which is limited.

• Humans and animals store information about behaviours of others and use this to make judgements about when it's appropriate to perform certain actions.

• Therefore this is a more complete explanation. 

Strength of SLT - real world applications for cultural differences

• it can explain cultural differences in behaviour.

• SLT principles like modelling, imitation, reinforcement and bandura's study shows how children learn from those around them and the media, which shows how they come to understand things like their gender role for example.

• Therefore, this has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, adding value. 

Weakness of SLT - lab studies

• Children's behaviours in a lab may be different, therefore may potentially be responding to demand characteristics.

• Also a bobo doll is made to hit, so the children may have just been behaving how they thought they were meant to.

• Therefore tells us little about real life and lacks validity.

The cognitive approach

• shows how our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions and attention) affect behaviour.

Assumptions of Cognitive approach

• internal mental processes can, and should be, studied scientifically.

• However, these are private and cannot be observed

• so they are studied indirectly by making inferences (assumptions) about what's going on inside people's minds on the basis of their behaviour.

The schema’s influence on cognitive processing

• mental framework of beliefs and expectations

• developed from experience

• helps us to process lots of information quickly

• but it may also cause distortion in our interpretations

Theoretical and computer models

• this approach likens our mind to theoretical and computer models to help us understand thoughts

• One important theoretical model is the information processing approach

• this suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages, including input, storage and retrieval, like in the multi store model.

• Computer models are programmed to imitate the human mind, allowing researchers to test hypotheses.

Cognitive neuroscience + early research and advancements

• the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.

• Early research found damage to the frontal lobe could impair speech

• more recently there's also been advances in brain imaging techniques, like FMRI and PET, therefore allowing scientists to describe the neurological basis of mental processing and disorders like OCD for example.

• For example, Tulving has suggested that episodic and semantic memories are linked to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex.

Strength of the cognitive approach - scientific and objective

• uses lab studies in order to produce reliable data

• the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has brought together both biology and cognitive psychology, enhancing the scientific basis and credibility.

• This therefore means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis.

Strength of the cognitive approach - real world applications

• a dominant approach in psychology that has contributed to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts.

• has contributed to the development of AI and robots, which may consequently change the future and how we live.

• has also been applied to the treatment of depression, and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony.

• Overall, this highlights its value.

Weakness of the cognitive approach - based on machine reductionism

• While there are similarities between humans and computers, we are not the same.

• Humans are much more complex and things like emotion and motivation both have influences on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information.

• This is further supported by the fact that researchers have found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses.

The biological approach

• emphasises the importance of physical processes such as genetic inheritance and neural function

Assumptions of Biological Approach

• Everything psychological is at first biological

• To fully understand behaviour, biological structures within the body must be examined

• These structures include: genes, nervous system and neurochemistry.

• An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour

The neurochemical basis of behaviour

• much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain which occurs using neurotransmitters

Imbalance of neurotransmitters

• An imbalance of neurotransmitters may therefore be a cause of some mental disorders, for example an underproduction of serotonin in OCD

The genetic basis of behaviour

Studying whether behavioural characteristics are inherited

Twins and concordance rates

• MZ twins - Identical twins with 100% same DNA

• DZ twins - Non identical with 50% same DNA

• Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis

• Done by comparing concordance rates

• If concordance rates are significantly higher for MZ twins than DZ twins, this is evidence that there is a genetic basis of behaviour

Genotype

• The person's actual genetic makeup

Phenotype

• The way that a person's genotype is expressed through environmental factors

• Identical twins may look different despite sharing same genotype

Evolution and behaviour

• a theory proposed by darwin.

• any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on which is known as natural selection

• This will mean that the processor will gain certain advantages, making them more likely to survive and pass them on further.

Strength of the biological approach - practical applications

• research has revealed neurochemical imbalances can contribute to depression.

• therefore led to the development of drug treatments in order to help these individuals, by creating antidepressant drugs that increase levels of serotonin at synapses in the brain.

• Therefore it has positive contributions, potentially bettering the quality of life for many people.

• However, it must be noted that these antidepressants do not work for everyone, challenging the value of the approach.

Strength of the biological approach - scientific methods

• investigations take place in a controlled environment to improve reliability and remove any extraneous variables

• allows the researcher to establish cause and effect relationships.

• Techniques such as FMRI also make it possible to measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.

• Therefore the approach is based on objective and reliable data, increasing the validity. 

Weakness of the biological approach - too simplistic

• Human behaviour is very complex and this approach doesn't account for this

• it merely views behaviour as a genetic thing that we have no control over whatsoever, ignoring the importance of our environment.

• We know that environment is an important factor because of twin studies, even identical twins don't think the same!

• Therefore this approach is reductionist, reducing its value.

The psychodynamic approach assumptions

• Freud has the perspective that describes how different factors, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct behaviour and experience.

• Behaviour largely controlled by unconscious part of the mind (therefore more psychological than biological)

Three parts of the mind

1. the conscious - what we are aware of and is only the tip of the iceberg

2. the preconscious - thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and slips of the tongue

3. the unconscious - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour.

The role of the unconscious

• Most of the mind is made up of the unconscious (80%)

• A vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence behaviour and personality

• We are unaware of the unconscious and its roles, even though it makes up most of our mind.

Structure of Personality - three parts

• Id

• Ego

• Superego

The id

• operates on the pleasure principle

• gets what it wants, it is entirely unconscious and is selfish, demanding instant gratification of its needs.

• When a baby is born, they only have an ID.

The ego

• operates on the reality principle

• the mediator between the ID and the superego to reduce conflicts

• This part of the personality develops at 2 years old.

The superego

• operates off of the morality principle

• an internalised sense of right and wrong.

• It represents the moral standard of the same sex parent

• punishes the ego through guilt

• This is formed at the end of the phallic stage at about 5 years old

What are psychosexual stages

• How child development occurs

• five stages which are each marked by a different conflict that must be resolved in order to move to the next stage.

• Any unresolved conflict leads to a fixation, where the behaviours associated with that stage are carried through to adult life.

What are the five stages of child development (psychosexual stages)

1. Oral

2. Anal

3. Phallic

4. Latency

5. Genital

Oral stage (1)

• between the ages 0-1 yrs

• the pleasure focus is the mouth and the mothers breast is desired.

• If unresolved, an oral fixation occurs such as smoking, biting nails, sarcasm and being critical.

Anal stage (2)

• takes place between the ages 1-3 yrs.

• the pleasure focus is the anus, meaning pleasure is gained from withholding and eliminating faeces.

• If unresolved, one may become anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy).

Phallic stage (3)

• taking place between the ages of 3 - 6 yrs

• a pleasure focus of the genitals.

• the child will also experience either the oedipus or electra complex which is an unconscious desire for a relationship with the opposite sex parent and a rivalry with the same sex.

• If unresolved, narcissistic tendencies can be seen as well as recklessness and possibly homosexuality.

Latency stage (4)

• any earlier conflicts are repressed

Genital stage (5)

• any sexual desires become conscious (puberty).

• If unresolved, one may have difficulty forming hetrosexual relationships

How does the ego balance conflicts between the id and superego

• through the use of defence mechanisms

• these are unconscious but help to reduce anxiety but often involve distortion of reality so not good long term.

Name the three defence mechanisms and explain them

1. Repression - the process of forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

2. Denial - the refusal to acknowledge the reality

3. Displacement - the transferral of feelings from its true source onto a substitute target

Strength of the psychodynamic approach - real world applications

• It led to the introduction of psychotherapy which was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically.

• This approach has helped further our understanding of our defence mechanisms, so therefore this therapy can help to bring repressed emotions back to the conscious to be dealt with because of this knowledge.

• This was the first modern therapy, showing the approach's value.

Strength of the psychodynamic approach - explains human behaviour

• has had a huge influence on our world today.

• This understanding has allowed us to explain a wide range of behaviours like personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender identity, and has also drawn attention to the influence of childhood, such as relations with parents, on adult personality.

• Therefore, this approach has had a positive influence on society. 

Weakness of the psychodynamic approach - based on untestable concepts

• Due to its focus on the unconscious mind, scientific methods cannot falsify or test the theories that are provided.

• The approach also relied heavily on interpretations of case studies and research, which allows research bias to take place as they will favour the interpretations that support the theory.

• Therefore, it lacks validity. 

The humanistic approach

• highlights the importance of subjective experience and each person's capacity for self-determination

• It also states that they have free will which is affected by internal and external influence, but can determine their own development

Assumptions of the Humanistic approach

• believes that psychology should concern itself with subjective experience rather than general laws as we are all unique.

• Therefore, it rejects more scientific approaches and takes a more person centred one instead.

Free will

• Humans are self-determining and have free will.

• We are active agents

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - self actualisation

• looks at what motivates behaviour, and states that everyone's goal is self actualisation which can only be achieved when lower levels are met.

• Self actualisation is the innate desire to achieve our full potential (become the best you possibly can) and not everyone can achieve this.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Self Actualisation
^
Self-esteem
^
Love/belonging (social)
^
Safety + Security
^
Physiological (food, water)

The Self and Congruence

• For personal growth to be achieved, an individual's concept of self must be congruent (equivalent) with their ideal self.

• If there is too big of a gap, self actualisation is not possible.

Unconditional positive regard

• issues such as worthlessness and low self esteem have their roots in childhood due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from parents.

• For example, setting boundaries on their love (conditions of worth), ‘i will only love you if…’.

• In order to reduce this gap, Rogers developed client centred therapy (counseling). 

Client centred therapy - Rogers

• Centred on the person

• The individual is the expert on their own condition.

• Non-directive therapy.

• Client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental.

Strength of the humanistic approach - not reductionist + practical applications

• subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.

• Therefore it has high validity as it considers behaviour in a real world setting.

• Through this, it's also had a long term influence on counselling, by introducing client centred therapy that helps increase feelings of self worth, having positive implications on society. 

Strength of the humanistic approach - positive appraoch

• It views people as having control over their lives, and consequently having the freedom to change and achieve whatever they wish to.

• This is widely different from Freud's approach, who suggested that we are all slaves to our past.

• Therefore, it is much more optimistic than other approaches.

Weakness of the humanistic approach - cultural bias

• This approach is based on individualist cultures, like the USA, meaning it is not generalisable.

• Collectivist groups, like India, emphasise the needs of a group and community.

• This therefore suggests that they may not resonate with the values of Humanistic psychology.

• Therefore, this approach does not apply universally.