Religion, ideas and reform

What is Erasmianism

It is a blend of humanism and religious reform associated with Erasmus and his followers.

Who were the Oxford reformers

Scholars such as Grocyn, Linacre, and Colet who were among the first English humanists.

What influenced Erasmianism

The ideas of Erasmus, Thomas More, and especially John Colet.

When was Erasmianism influential

In the years before the crisis of Henry VIII's royal divorce.

How did the Oxford reformers contribute

They developed humanist ideas within a religious framework and helped shape the English religious settlement.

How did Renaissance ideas develop in England under Henry VIII

Renaissance ideas became more prominent among the English elite during Henry VIII's reign, supported by his patronage and the introduction of Italian Renaissance artistic and cultural trends.

What role did Henry VIII play in promoting Renaissance culture

He actively encouraged leading humanist thinkers like Thomas More and Erasmus and commissioned Renaissance-style effigies for his parents' tomb, showing his interest in contemporary artistic movements from Italy.

Who was the most significant humanist in English education

John Colet, known for his pioneering humanist approach to education.

What were Colet's reforms at St Paul's School

Colet appointed governors from a city guild instead of clergymen and introduced a humanist curriculum, including Erasmus's works, alongside new teaching methods.

Who was appointed head of St Paul's School by Colet

William Lily, a respected humanist scholar, was chosen as head to reinforce the school's humanist principles.

Which other schools led educational reform influenced by humanism

Magdalen College School in Oxford, Corpus Christi College and Cardinal College in Oxford, and St John's College in Cambridge all adopted humanist ideas in their curriculum and teaching.

How did Cardinal Wolsey contribute to education

Wolsey founded Cardinal College in Oxford and a school in Ipswich, personally supporting educational reforms inspired by Renaissance humanism.

What influence did Erasmus have on English intellectual life

Erasmus was widely welcomed in English academic circles, befriended influential figures like Fisher and More, influenced younger humanists, and published a Greek New Testament with a new Latin translation in 1516.

What controversy did Erasmus's work provoke at Oxford

Some Oxford dons opposed the study of Greek after Erasmus's New Testament publication, fearing it challenged traditional religious teachings.

Was Erasmian humanism widespread

Its influence was confined mainly to a small intellectual elite, with much broader religious change arising from new theological ideas rather than solely humanist scholarship.

What is Platonism and how did it influence education

Platonism, based on Plato's philosophy, promoted the idea that education should create 'philosopher kings' by instilling a sense of public service and leadership ideals in students.

How many times did Erasmus visit England and when was his most important visit

Erasmus visited England four times, with his key visit from 1509 to 1514 when he was a professor at Cambridge and a notable figure at Henry VIII's court.

How did Renaissance ideas influence English culture during Henry VIII's reign

Knowledge of classical learning grew among elites, more schools adopted humanist education, and Henry VIII promoted humanism and new ideas.

Why did the Crown want well-educated diplomats

To communicate in a sophisticated and fashionable style with foreign counterparts.

Who was the most important English humanist writer

Thomas More, who combined his humanist interests with his legal and political career.

Which other writers showed humanist influences

Thomas Lupset and Thomas Starkey.

How did Renaissance ideas affect visual culture

Henry VIII commissioned Renaissance-style tombs by Pietro Torrigiano for his parents and grandmother, blending Renaissance art with Gothic architecture in Westminster's Lady Chapel.

What architectural styles coexisted during Henry VIII's reign

Renaissance styles appeared but Gothic architecture remained predominant, especially in major buildings like the Lady Chapel.

Give an example of Renaissance art in a Gothic setting. The rood screen in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, made in the early 1530s to celebrate Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn.

What was the dominant style of painting at Henry VIII's court

Northern Renaissance painting with strong Gothic influences, rather than Italian Renaissance style.

Who were the leading painters at Henry VIII's court

Hans Holbein from Germany and Lucas Horenbout from Flanders.

What art form was more highly valued than paintings

Flemish tapestries, often depicting medieval chivalric themes.

How did Henry VIII's building tastes compare to Wolsey's

Henry was more conservative and preferred Gothic styles, while Wolsey's Hampton Court showed stronger classical Renaissance influences.

How did Henry VIII contribute to music

He was a generous patron, an amateur composer, and supported musicians including Flemish influences dominant in church music.

What was the main cultural influence on English music and art

Despite some Italian Renaissance influence, England's strongest cultural ties were with the Low Countries due to commercial links.

What major changes did Henry VIII make to the Church between 1532 and 1540

He withdrew the English Church from papal authority, declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, dissolved all monasteries, and began reforming Church doctrine and religious practices.

What were some examples of corruption in the Church

Practices such as pluralism (holding multiple Church offices simultaneously to collect income), simony (buying or selling Church positions), and non-residence (receiving income from a benefice without residing or performing duties) were common.

Who was the most notorious corrupt clergyman

Cardinal Wolsey was the most famous example, though many other clergy were guilty of similar abuses.

How did the Crown contribute to Church corruption

The Crown rewarded its officials who were clergy by granting them lucrative Church offices regardless of their qualifications or residence.

What is anticlericalism

It was opposition to the clergy's political and social power, including resentment of their legal privileges and influence over secular matters.

Who objected to the Church's legal influence

Common lawyers opposed canon law's authority and the special legal rights clergy enjoyed, which challenged the secular legal system.

What was a notorious example of clerical misconduct

The suspicious death of Richard Hunne, a London merchant found dead in the Bishop of London's prison under suspicious circumstances in 1514.

What happened to Richard Hunne

He was found hanged, officially declared suicide, but the coroner's jury concluded he was murdered—likely due to a failed torture attempt and subsequent cover-up by Church officials.

What was the impact of Hunne's death

It seriously damaged the Church's reputation locally but occurred well before the break with Rome, so it was not a direct trigger for the Reformation.

What was Simon Fish's Supplication of the Beggars

A sharp, inflammatory pamphlet written by an early Protestant convert accusing the Catholic Church of extreme greed, corruption, and betrayal of the English people, addressed to Henry VIII.

How should anticlericalism be understood

Historian Christopher Haigh argues it was more a consequence of the Reformation's religious upheaval rather than a main cause, arising as criticism of the Church increased.

What criticisms were made of monasteries by the 1530s

They were seen as outdated institutions, with many large monasteries operating like wealthy businesses controlling vast lands and resources rather than focusing on spiritual duties.

What precedent for dissolving monasteries existed before Henry VIII's reforms

Cardinal Wolsey had dissolved about twenty religious houses in the 1520s to fund Cardinal College, Oxford.

How quickly were the monasteries dissolved under Henry VIII

The dissolution was rapid and widespread, supporting the view that monasticism had lost direction and was vulnerable to closure.

Did all monastic orders decline equally

No, some orders like the Observant Franciscans and Bridgettines were still thriving up to the final days of the dissolution.

What evidence is there of early Protestantism in England after 1517

There was limited evidence of widespread Protestantism; some Lollard beliefs persisted, and German reformer ideas influenced London and east-coast ports in the 1520s.

Where was there an early centre of Protestant thought in England

A group of future reformers met at Cambridge's White Horse in the 1520s, engaging in religious discussions.

Who was the leading figure of this early reform group

Robert Barnes, converted to Protestantism by Thomas Bilney, was a key member; both were later executed for heresy under Henry VIII.

Who became the most influential member of this Cambridge reform circle

Thomas Cranmer, who later became Archbishop of Canterbury.

How strong was evidence of committed Protestant evangelism in this period

It was fairly limited and not widespread in England before the later stages of Henry VIII's reign.

Who was Martin Luther

A German monk who in 1517 challenged Catholic teachings on salvation and papal authority, sparking the Protestant Reformation and gaining support from many German rulers.

What argument did James McConica make about Erasmian humanists after 1529

He suggested that humanists inspired by Erasmus influenced royal policy, though evidence is weak since key humanists like More and Fisher opposed reforms and were executed.

Which humanist reformers were connected to religious changes

Archbishop Cranmer had humanist links, but not all reformers were humanists, and many humanists, like Bishops Gardiner and Tunstall, reluctantly accepted reforms to preserve their positions.

Did humanist influence continue late in Henry VIII's reign

Yes, Cranmer retained royal favour despite opposition, and tutors like John Cheke and Roger Ascham, both humanists, educated the royal children.

Who was part of the humanist circle around Henry VIII's last wife

Katherine Parr, educated in the humanist tradition and a patron of arts and literature.

What was the long-term importance of Erasmian reformers

Their moderate influence was limited under Henry VIII but helped shape policy during Edward VI's reign before more radical reformers took over.

Where did support for devout humanism come from

It had backing from the highest levels, including the royal family and London's mercantile elite, with strong patronage from courtiers, administrators, clergy, and reforming abbots.

Who was a notable opponent of Erasmus in learned circles

Edward Lee, later Archbishop of York, was the main significant critic.

What internal divisions weakened Erasmian humanism

Disagreements over religion—More defended Catholic faith and authority, while Erasmus emphasised human reason and questioned orthodox beliefs, causing splits among humanists.

What happened to the humanist movement as Luther's Reformation grew

The movement weakened as new, more radical reformers attracted public support, overshadowing the fragile humanist position.

What was the significance of the Act of Supremacy 1534

It confirmed Henry VIII as the supreme head of the Church of England, marking the official break from papal authority, though the Act did not originally create this supremacy but rather recognised it.

What role did Thomas Cromwell take on in 1534

He was appointed Vicegerent in Spirituals, making him second in authority only to the king and outranking archbishops and bishops, giving him significant power over Church affairs.

Did the position of Vicegerent in Spirituals last beyond Cromwell

No, the post ended with Cromwell's fall.

What changes were made to diocesan structure

Six new dioceses were created to improve Church administration, though one of these was soon abolished.

Were there other structural changes to the Church of England

No, the spiritual jurisdiction remained with archbishops and bishops, unlike some continental reformed churches where structure was more radically altered.

What was the Valor Ecclesiasticus

A survey commissioned by Thomas Cromwell in 1535 to assess the wealth and resources of the Church, providing a basis for Crown exploitation.

What was the purpose of the visitations to monasteries starting in 1535

Four visitors were sent to inspect monasteries to gather evidence of corruption and weaknesses, with instructions to find faults to justify dissolution.

Who was the most fair-minded visitor during the monastic inspections

Tregonwell, who combined criticism with praise for the piety and dedication of some monastic members.

What did the 1536 Act to dissolve smaller monasteries do

It ordered the closure of monasteries with an annual income under £200, justified as a measure to improve monastic standards by removing the weaker houses.

How did the Pilgrimage of Grace affect the dissolution process

After the rebellion, heads of monasteries involved surrendered voluntarily, widening the scope of dissolution beyond just smaller houses.

What happened in 1539 regarding monasteries

Parliament passed an Act dissolving the remaining monasteries.

By when were all monasteries dissolved

By March 1540, all religious houses in England had been dissolved.

What did the first set of royal injunctions in 1536 do

They encouraged clergy and laity to maintain more moral conduct, reduced the number of holy days that could be celebrated to limit excessive festivities, and actively discouraged pilgrimages, which were a major part of traditional religious practice.

How did the second set of royal injunctions in 1538 attack traditional religious practices

They explicitly condemned pilgrimages and the veneration of relics and religious images as superstitions "devised by men's fantasies." Clergymen who had previously promoted these practices were forced to publicly renounce and retract their support for such acts.

What was the significance of the injunctions regarding the English Bible issued in 1538

They mandated that every parish church must acquire an English Bible and encourage all parishioners to read it, describing the Bible as "the lively word of God" which every Christian was obliged to embrace—though in practice most parishioners were illiterate and relied on visual aids for religious teaching.

What was the Great Bible and when was it published

The Great Bible, first published in 1539, was the first authorised English translation of the Bible intended for public use in churches. Its title page famously depicted Henry VIII personally presenting the word of God to Archbishop Cranmer and bishops on one side, and to Thomas Cromwell and royal officials on the other, emphasising royal authority over the Church.

Why was the Act for the Advancement of True Religion passed in 1543

Henry VIII became concerned that unrestricted access to the Bible was encouraging women and lower-class men to form "naughty and erroneous opinions," leading to social unrest and division. This act therefore limited public Bible reading to the upper classes—specifically upper-class men—to maintain social order and control over religious interpretation.

What does "veneration" mean in this context

Veneration refers to the respectful honour and awe given to religious objects such as relics, statues, and images, which were traditionally seen as channels of divine power but were condemned by the 1538 injunctions as superstitious and false worship.

What did the 1538 injunctions require regarding the English Bible

Each parish church had to acquire an English Bible and encourage everyone to read it, as it was seen as "the lively word of God" that every Christian was bound to embrace.

Could most people read the English Bible after 1538

No, in practice few could read it; most people continued to rely on visual images for religious teaching.

When did the first edition of the Great Bible appear and what did its title page show

It appeared in 1539 and showed Henry VIII graciously offering the word of God to Archbishop Cranmer and bishops on one side, and to Cromwell and politicians on the other.

Why did Henry VIII restrict Bible reading by 1543

He feared that allowing the "wrong sorts" of people to read the Bible would lead to "naughty and erroneous opinions," causing division and social disorder.

What did the Act for the Advancement of True Religion (1543) do

It limited public Bible reading to upper-class males, excluding women and lower classes to preserve social control.

How important were changes to Church doctrine at this stage of the Reformation

Changes to doctrine were less significant than the attacks on traditional religious practices, partly because Henry VIII was indecisive and no consistent doctrinal changes were established.

What sacraments were seen as necessary to salvation in the 1536 Ten Articles

Only three sacraments—baptism, penance, and the Eucharist—were declared necessary for salvation, reflecting Lutheran influence by rejecting the full traditional seven sacraments.

How was the Eucharist defined in the 1536 Ten Articles

The definition of the Eucharist was deliberately ambiguous, avoiding a clear statement on the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation or the Lutheran view.

What was the stance on confession in the 1536 Ten Articles

Confession was praised and upheld in a Catholic manner as important for spiritual forgiveness.

What did the 1536 Ten Articles say about praying to saints

Praying to saints for the remission of sins was rejected in line with Lutheran ideas, but praying to saints for other purposes, such as help or guidance, was still allowed and called 'laudable'.

How would you describe the 1536 Ten Articles in terms of religious influence

The Ten Articles were a compromise document showing a mix of Lutheran reforms and retained Catholic practices, reflecting uncertainty and division.

What changes did the 1537 Bishops' Book make to the sacraments

It restored the four sacraments—confirmation, marriage, holy orders, and extreme unction—that were omitted from the Ten Articles but ranked them as less important than the original three, making the book more conservative.

How did the 1539 Six Articles Act affect religious doctrine

It reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrine, especially insisting on transubstantiation, and declared denial of this doctrine to be heresy punishable by law.

What was the significance of the 1539 Six Articles Act

The Act was a major victory for conservative forces within the Church who wanted to suppress Protestant reform and maintain order, leading to the resignation of two reforming bishops who opposed it.

What was the tone of the 1543 King's Book

The King's Book was mostly conservative, reinforcing Catholic beliefs, but it included subtle Lutheran influences, showing a cautious attempt to balance religious views.

What aspects of the English Church in 1547 would have been familiar to someone from 1509

The Church hierarchy was largely unchanged, services remained traditional in form and were still mostly in Latin, and church interiors had seen little alteration.

How did the Six Articles Act of 1539 and Cromwell's fall in 1540 affect religious reform

They significantly weakened the reform movement, reinforcing conservative religious practices and limiting changes to doctrine and worship.

What role did music play in the Church by 1547

Music continued to be important in services, especially in cathedrals and collegiate churches, maintaining traditional forms of worship.

What major changes had taken place in the English Church by 1547

The Pope's authority was removed, the king became the supreme head of the Church, monasteries were dissolved with many buildings falling into ruin, and Church wealth was transferred to the Crown.

How had parish churches' religious resources changed by 1547

Parish churches were required to have English Bibles, though many still lacked them, reflecting a shift toward accessibility of scripture in the vernacular.

What influence did humanism have on religion by 1547

Humanism contributed to undermining traditional Church authority and doctrine, with its influence growing especially in elite and educated circles, though it was diverse and included devout Catholics like More and Fisher.

How was Renaissance culture reflected in England by 1547

Renaissance ideas and culture were well established at court and among the wealthy and educated, ensuring their continued cultural dominance throughout the century.