Psychological Inquiry Exam 4

Social Psychology

The study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to coincide with group norms

What two experiments showed effects of conformity?

Asch Conformity Studies (1955). People were shown a line and asked to say which line was the same length as the first line. However, all but one participant was an actor, and the actors were often asked to give the same wrong answer. Often times, the true participant decided to give the same wrong answer as the actors unless there was another person who gave the right answer or they were able to write it down.

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The elevator experiment. When entering an elevator with a group of people behaving differently than generally expected, people often copied the atypical mannerisms despite being evidently confused.

Why do people conform?

Normative social influence and informational social influence

Normative Social Influence

An influence that causes people to want to avoid extreme discomfort by changing behavior if singled out, and it causes people to try to fit in and maintain social order

Informational Social Influence

An influence that causes people to believe that the group is better informed than they are, and it also causes people to look to the group for guidance when uncertain

When are we more likely to conform?

• Feel incompetent \n • In a group with at least 3 people \n • In a group where everyone agrees \n • Admire the group’s status \n • Know that others in the group will observe our \n behavior \n • Cultural expectations for conformity

What occurred in the Milgram Obedience Studies?

Participants were asked to administer an electric shock by a “researcher” when a “participant” answer a question wrong. Each time, the shock got stronger, eventually reaching a supposedly fatal level.

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Results were as follows:

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• Over 60 percent complied fully

\n • Obedience was highest when: \n • The authority figure was nearby and \n perceived to be a legitimate authority \n • The authority figure was affiliated with a \n powerful or prestigious institution \n • The victim was at a distance or \n depersonalized \n • There were no role models for defiance

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on well-learned tasks (ex: encouragement/ audience engagement leads to a better presentation)

Social Loafing

Tendency to exert less effort when we don’t feel individually accountable (ex: group projects)

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint when one feels anonymous in a group (Ex: online)

Group Polarization

Enhancement of attitudes and beliefs through discussion with like-minded others in a group (ex: people more open with thoughts at political rallies)

Groupthink

A type of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides appraisal of alternatives (ex: choosing to eat at the first restaurant suggested)

Attribution Theory

Explains how people explain behavior. It uses a combination of dispositional (internal) attribution and situational (external) attribution.

The Fundamental Attribution Error

When analyzing others’ behavior, we tend to overestimate the influence of character, and underestimate the influence of the situation (ex: when driving if one sees a bad driver, they may simply assume that they are stupid)

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request (ex: being asked to donate $5 and later being willing to donate $20)

What are the two methods of persuasion? Define them.

\n -Peripheral route persuasion - uses superficial \n cues (ex: celebrity endorsement and/or appealing to emotions without providing info (such as with a sad pic of a dog))

\n -Central route persuasion - offers evidence and \n arguments (focus on content) (ex: informational advertisement)

What occurred in the Stanford Prison Experiment?

The experiment was designed to see how social roles influence how people behave and think. 24 able-bodied, mentally stable men were assigned to be either prisoners or guards. Rather quickly, violence towards the prisoners began occurring, and mental/emotional breakdowns occurred as a result. The experiment, that was supposed to last 2 weeks, was ended after 6 days due to this.

Prejudice

A negative attitude towards a group and its members (explicit and implicit)

Stereotypes

A generalized belief about a group of people

Discrimination

Negative behavior toward a group or its members

Why does prejudice arise?

Some of the root causes of prejudice are social inequalities and divisions in a culture as well as negative emotions and cognitive shortcuts such as the just-world phenomenon, ingroup bias, the scapegoat theory, forming categories, and heuristics.

Just-World Phenomenon

When people have money, power, and prestige, and other do not, the “haves” tend to justify things as they are. Creating stereotypes can rationalize inequalities. This phenomenon is the tendency for people to believe the world is just and people get whet they deserve and deserve what they get.

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor our own group and perceiving other groups as different or apart. We tend to divide the world into “us” and “them.” This creates an ingroup and an outgroup.

Scapegoat Theory

This theory proposes that when things go wrong or people become disadvantaged, they find someone to blame, usually people who are also disadvantaged and have little power. This provides an outlet for their anger and frustration.

Forming Categories and Cognitive Shortcuts

People tend to stereotype as they mentally categorize people by gender, ethnicity, race, age, and several other characteristics. The heuristics we use create snap judgments about people.

What evidence is there for the scapegoat theory?

•Economically frustrated people often express heightened prejudice \n •During economic downturns, prejudice increases \n •In experiments, temporarily frustrating people increases prejudice (denigrating others may boost our own sense of status)

aLTRUISM

The unselfish regard for the wellbeing of others

What occurred in the case of Kitty Genovese?

The bystander effect was shown when at least 37 people saw/heard her murder but still did not call the police

Antisocial vs. prosocial relations

The tendency to use behaviors that discourage relations vs. the tendency to use behaviors that encourage relations

Bystander Effect

Idea that explains that people are less likely to provide help if other bystanders are present

What occurred in the smoke-filled room experiment?

A varied number of people were told to wait in a waiting room. While sitting there, smoke begin pouring in from the door where the researchers were. When alone, people were more likely to get help. However, with more bystanders, help was often slower to be retrieved, proving the bystander effect.

What makes people decide to help?

People must assume responsibility in order to be motivated to help.

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The decision-making process for intervention is explained below:

• First notice the incident \n • Next, interpret as an emergency \n • Finally, to assume responsibility for helping

Diffusion of Responsibility

As the number of people presumed to be available for help increases, the number of people attempting to help decreases

When are the odds of helping the highest?

•The person appears to need and deserve help \n •The person is similar to us \n •The person is a woman \n •We have just observed someone else being helpful \n •We are not in a hurry \n •We are in a small town or rural area \n •We are feeling guilty \n •We are focused on others and not preoccupied \n •We are in a good mood

Social Exchange Theory

When the aim it to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help those who have helped them

Social-Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people should help those who are the most vulnerable or who need their help

Personality

A characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

How is personality viewed from a psychodynamic perspective?

It is viewed as an interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind

How is personality viewed from a humanistic approach?

It is viewed as possessing inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment

How is personality viewed from a trait approach?

It is viewed as being characteristic patterns of behavior

How is personality viewed from a social-cognitive approach?

It is viewed as being an interaction between traits and social context

Unconscious Mind

A Freudian idea that stated that an area of the brain housed unacceptable thoughts and feelings that we are unaware of

Preconscious Mind

Area of the mind that houses memories and stored information that our outside of our awareness, but easy to access

Conscious Mind

Area of the mind that houses thoughts and feelings we are aware of and can easily talk about

Id

In Freud’s personality structure, this system unconsciously strives to satisfy selfish \n drives and wants.

Ego

In Freud’s personality structure, this system balances what we want to do and what \n society tells us is acceptable. Resolves the \n conflict between the id and superego.

Superego

In Freud’s personality structure, this system is concerned with morality, right and wrong

What are the five forms of defense mechanisms?

•Repression \n •Reaction Formation \n •Projection \n •Denial \n •Displacement

Repression

The basic defense mechanism that n=banishes negative thoughts and feelings from consciousness

Reaction Formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

Projection

Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Displacement

Shifting unacceptable impulses toward a more acceptable activity

What two methods did Freud use to assess personality?

Two types of projective tests: \n • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): (creating a story behind a certain image) \n • Rorschach Inkblot Test: (explaining what is seen in a inkblot - this test has been widely misused though after original psychiatrist died)

Humanistic Theories

These theories focus on the potential for positive growth and change. Furthermore, under these theories, a central feature of personality is one’s self-concept

Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Ideas

These ideas stated that people are motivated by hierarchy of needs. Furthermore, they also state that people strive towards self-actualization and self-transcendence (fulfilling one’s potential and \n finding purpose beyond the self)

From bottom to top, what are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization

Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective

These ideas state that The environment can \n inhibit or promote growth in an individual. \n Acceptance (Unconditional \n positive regard), genuineness, and empathy are needed for one to reach their full potential

How is personality tested in Humanistic Theories such as Maslow’s?

Self-Reports describing self as you would ideally like to be and what you actually are

Self-Concept

What I am; perceptions of your attitudes

Self-Esteem

How good I am; evaluation of your worth as a person

Identity

Who I am; sense of who you are as a person and your fit in society

What happens to self-esteem as we age?

•Declines during adolescence \n •Gradually increases through the adult years, then drops in older age

What did James Marcia do?

He examined identity. Specifically, he examined the results when an individual has experience a crisis or achieved commitment.

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Crisis and Commitment = Identity Achievement

Crisis and No Commitment = Moratorium

No Crisis and Commitment = Foreclosure

No Crisis and No Commitment = Identity Diffusion

Trait Theories of Personality

Theories of personality that believed that use \n stable and enduring behavior patterns to \n describe personality and assume traits are genetically and biologically influenced

What are the big five factors of personality?

Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion

What are characteristics to describe someone with high levels of conscientiousness?

Organized, careful, and disciplined

What are characteristics to describe someone with high levels of agreeableness?

Soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful

What are characteristics to describe someone with high levels of neuroticism?

Anxious, insecure, and self-pitying

What are characteristics to describe someone with high levels of openness?

Imaginative, prefers variety, and independent

What are characteristics to describe someone with high levels of extraversion?

Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate

Are our big five traits stable over time?

They tend to fluctuate in early stages of life, but after 40 they become far more stable

What elements of the big five personality traits are effected by the maturity principle.

\n •Neuroticism (greater emotional stability) \n •Conscientiousness (more responsible) \n •Agreeableness (more cooperative and easy to get along with)

Social-Cognitive Theory

A theory that assumes the interaction between our traits and our situations is important. Furthermore, it also believes that how we behave is influenced by how we interpret (cognitive) and respond to environmental situations (social)

Reciprocal Determinism

Describes the interaction between internal personal (recognition) factors, environmental factors, and behavior

Psychological Disorder

A collection of symptoms marked by a clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

What criteria must symptoms meet before being declared a disorder?

Symptoms must be dysfunctional or maladaptive and they must cause distress

Vulnerability-Stress Model

In this model, it is shown how genetic factors combine with environmental factors (substance abuse, trauma, discrimination, social exclusion, etc). The model shows that genetic predisposition alone is not enough to develop a disorder.

How prevalent are psychological disorders?

Very prevalent

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• 1 in 5 adults have had a psychological disorder within past year \n • Usually develop by early adulthood \n • As a group, anxiety disorders are the most common type of psychological disorder in the US; depression is the single most common

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A disorder that is characterized by persistent and repetitive thoughts , actions, or both. This disorder is more common among teens and young adults than in older people.

What are the five types of anxiety disorders?

Generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias (specific and social), OCD, and PTSD

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A disorder characterized by haunting memories, \n nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia lingering four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. Often involves veterans and survivors of accidents, disasters, or violent/sexual assaults.

What are the causes of anxiety-related disorders?

Conditioning, cognition, and biology

Relationship of Conditioning to Anxiety

Learn fears through classical/operant conditioning

Relationship of Cognition to Anxiety

May cause someone to be attentive to threatening situations or interpret as threatening

Relationship of Biology to Anxiety

Genetic predisposition and amygdala can store emotional memories

Criteria for Major Depressive Disorder

• Two or more weeks with 5 or more symptoms \n • Must include depressed mood or loss of interest \n or pleasure \n (Single most common disorder in the US)

Bipolar Disorder

A disorder in which a person alternates between symptoms of depression and overexcited state of mania

What are the causes of Major Depressive Disorder?

• There are both biological and social-cognitive \n causes

\n Biological causes include: \n • Genetic influences \n • Changes in brain activity \n • Changes in chemicals in the brain (decrease \n in norepinephrine and serotonin)

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Social-cognitive causes include: \n • Explaining bad events in terms \n that are stable, global, and \n internal \n • A vicious cycle of depressed thinking

Schizophrenia

A psychotic disorder with irrational ideas and loss of contact with reality. It often includes symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and diminished/inappropriate emotional expression

What causes schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is mainly caused by biological factors

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Brain chemistry: \n • Excess number of dopamine receptors \n (overactive dopamine system)

\n Brain activity: \n • Lower activity in frontal lobe areas; \n Higher activity in the thalamus and \n amygdala

\n Genetics: \n • Increased risk for those with diagnosed \n family member

\n Prenatal Environment: \n • Low birth weight \n • Lack of oxygen during delivery \n • Viral infections

Dissociative Disorder

A rare disorder in which a person’s conscious \n awareness becomes separated from previous \n memories, thoughts, and feelings (ex: Dissociative identity disorder (DID))

Personality Disorders

A disruptive, inflexible, and enduring behavior \n pattern that impairs social functioning

Ten types of personality disorders form what three clusters?

• Anxiety (avoidant personality disorder) \n • Eccentricity or odd behavior (schizoid personality disorder) \n • Dramatic or impulsive behaviors (borderline, \n narcissistic and antisocial personality disorders)

Identity and Personality Disorders are caused by what factors?

Biological influences: genetic, smaller amygdala, and a less active frontal lobe

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Environmental influences: childhood abuse, family instability, and poverty

Anorexia Nervosa

When a person (usually an adolescent female) \n maintains a starvation diet despite being \n significantly underweight

Bulimia Nervosa

When a person alternates binge eating with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), fasting, or \n excessive exercise

Binge-Eating Disorder

When a person experiences significant binge eating, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the purging