Learning

process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behavior

Habituation

organisms decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link who or more stimuli and anticipate events

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response

in classical conditioning an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the month)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically triggers a response

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Higher Order Conditioning

a new neutral stimulus can become a new conditioned stimulus without the presence of an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition

the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning the strengthening of a reinforced response.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened is followed by a reinforcer or diminished is follow by a punishes.

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follow

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforces guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to relate stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforces. A positive reinforces is any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response with be reinforced.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number a response

Fixed interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

B.F. Skinner

behavior is shaped by its consequences using reinforcement (rewards) to increase desired actions and punishment to decrease unwanted ones

Immediate reinforcement

provides a reward right after a behavior strongly links them

Delayed reinforcement

delivers reward after a time gap requiring more patience

Biofeedback

a system, for electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tention

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to stome stimulus

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Escape learning

learn a behavior to stop an unpleasant stimulus already happening

Avoidance learning

learning to perform a behavior to prevent the unpleasant stimulus from starting

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of ones environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Insight

a sudden realization of a problems solution

Intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

problem focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stresser

Emotion focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to ones stress reaction

Learned helplessness

hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

External locus of control

the perception that change or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

Self control

ability to control impulses and delay short term gratification for greater long term rewards

Observational learning

learning by observing others, also called social learning

modeling

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. Brains mirroring of another action may enable imitation and empathy

Prosocial neurons

postiive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior

Albert Banduras social learning theory

posits that people learn by observing, imitating and modeling others behavior even without direct reinforcement

Vicarious reinforcement

more likely to copy behavior after seeing someone else get rewarded for it

Vicarious punishment

less likely to do something after seeing someone get punished for it