Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1

Anatomy

The study of the Structure of the Body (Complimentary to Physiology; A is what makes P possible)

Physiology

The study of the Function of the Body and its systems, including how they interact and maintain homeostasis (Complimentary to Anatomy; P provides meaning to A)

Inspection

Looking at the appearance of someone (looking for skin color changes or gait changes)

Palpation

Feeling a Structure with your hands (Pressing gently on abs to feel for enlarged organs or masses)

Ascultation

Listening to sounds produced by body (Using a stethoscope)

Percussion

Tapping on the body to feel for resistance or abnormalities (tapping on chest to see if lungs are filled with air, or fluid, which may indicate certain health conditions.

Dissection

Separating Tissue to see the relationship (using a cadaver)

Comparitive Anatomy

Using other species to gain insight into humans (Studying a pig heart as opposed to a human one to infer about humans)

Exploratory Surgery

Opening live body to see what is wrong (before imaging, surgeons would open people up)

Radiology

Specialized Imaging to see inside body (x-ray for bone structure, CT scans for internal bleeding and MRI for soft tissues)

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with naked eye

Histology (Microscopic Anatomy) [Subdivision of Anatomy]

Examination of tissues with a microscope (cellular level)

Histopathology [Subdivision of Anatomy]

Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of diseases (biopsies or autopsies to ID disease)

Cytology [Subdivision of Anatomy]

Study of cells and their function; fine details may be resolved using an ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

Neurophysiology [Subdivision of Physiology]

Physiology of the nervous system

Endocrinology [Subdivision of Physiology]

Physiology of hormones

Pathophysiology [Subdivision of Physiology]

Study of the mechanism of disease (How they begin)

Comparative Physiology [Subdivision of Physiology]

Study of other species ro learn about body functions

Hippocrates (Greek Physician)

• Father of medicine

• Establishing code of ethics; Hippocratic oath

• Urged Physicians to seek natural caused of disease rather than just divine causes

Aristotle (Greek Philosopher)

• Believed diseases had either supernatural (theologi) or physical (Physiologi) causes

• Physiologi gave rise to “Physician” and “Physiology”

• Believed complex Structures are built from simpler parts

Metrodora (Greek Physician)

First woman to publish a medical textbook

Claudius Galen (physician)

• Physician to Roman gladiators

• Performed Dissections on animals because cadavers were banned

• Saw science as a method of discovery, not a body of dogma

• His teachings were adopted as dogma in medieval Europe

Moses Maimonides (Jewish)

Physician to Sultan; argued health was both a medical and religious duty

Avicenna (Muslim)

Persian Polymath; wrote Cannon of medicine which was used well into 17th century

Andreas Vesalius

• Catholic Church relaxed on using cadaver

• Performed own dissections (No barber Surgeons)

• Published FIRST ATLAS OF HUMAN BODY, DE HUMANI CORPORIS FABRICA (On the structure of the human body) in 1543

  • Corrected a lot of galens errors; moved into modern anatomy

William Harvey

Early Physiologist whose contributions represent the birth of experimental physiology

• Published De Motu Cordis (on the motion of the heart) in 1628

• Demonstrated that blood flows out from the heart and returns again

• Early credit also given to michael servetus

Galileo

• Patented the compound microscope ad a biproduct of telescope work but did not use it for studying biological material

• Used a tube with two lenses: ocular (eyepiece) and objective lens (near specimin)

Marcello Malpighi

• First to use compound microscope for biological study

• Observed blood cells, capillaries, and blood flow

Robert Hooke

• Improved compound microscope with a specimen stage, illuminator and focus controls

• Microscope magnifies only about 30 times

• First to see and name “Cells”

• Published Micrographia

Leeuwenhoek

• Invented simple (Single lense) Microscope with magnification around 200x to inspect fabric

• Achieved superior magnification compared to Hooke because of superior lense making

• Published observations of blood, lake water, sperm, and bacteria

Schleiden and Schwann

• Examined many specimens and concluded that all organisms are composed of cells

• This became the first tenet of cell theory, establishing that body functions result from cellular activity

Scientific Method

Process of performing science, including careful observation, logical thinking, and proper analysis of observations and conclusions

• Science and scientific methods set standards for truth

Inductive Method

Process of making numerous observations until you see it enough that you can confidently draw generalizations (see it enough times that it is deemed true)

• Ex. Knowledge of anatomy

• Truth is only beyond reasonable doubt

• Proof is reliable observations, repeatedly confirmed and not falisified by any credible observations

Hypothetico-deductive method

• Most physiological knowledge is gained by this method

• investigator forms hypothesis (educated speculation or possible asnwer to a question)

• Good Hypostheses are consisten with what is already known and are testable

• Falsifiability - if we claim soemthing is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence could prove it wrong

Statistical testing

provides statement of probablity that treatment was effective

Experimental design

Sample size - larger the better cause it reduces effects of chance variations

Controls - show weather outcomes are due to treatment or other factors

Placebos - account for psychosomatic effects

Double blind method - takes care of experimenter bias

Peer Review

• Other experts evaluate research before publication and/ or funding

• Ensures honesty

• Done using verification and repeatability of results

Fact

Info that can be independently verifies by a trained person

Law of Nature

A generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave

• Results from inductive reasoning and repeated observations

• Written as a statement or mathematical formula

Theory

An explanatory statement derived from facts, laws and confirmed hypotheses

• Summarizes what we already know; suggests directions for further study