Mid Mods

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory receptors

specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.

percetion

awareness and processing of sensory input

bottom up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

a failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention, we sense but don't perceive input

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as light waves, sound waves and molecules, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

psychophysics

methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus

absolute thershold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

subliminal

below the threshold of conscious perception

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection of change 50 percent of the time

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant or strong stimulation

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

extrasensory perception

an ability to gain information by some means other than the ordinary senses; think crazy stuff like ESPs, Seers, etc.

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

wavelength

Horizontal distance between the crests of two adjacent waves

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye; bends light towards the pupil

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters; shrinks the visual field and regulates amount of light entering the eye

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. Some colors inhibit and others trigger cones, allowing us to interpret colors through the inhibition of cells

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

parallel processing

the brain subdividing vision into various characteristics: motion, form, depth, color, etc.

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

figure-ground form perception

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups: Proximity, Continuity, Closure

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance; done through binocular cue

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cue

a depth cue that requires the use of both eyes; Ex. Retinal Disparity

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

monocular cue - name all 6 monocular cues

a depth cue that requires the use of only one eye. Ex. Relative size, relative height, relative motion, interposition, linear perspective, shadows and light

stroboscopic movement

a type of apparent movement based on the rapid succession of still images, think stop motion animations

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, think the neon open close signs infront of stores

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object; Drake's music video with the changing color

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

audition

the sense or act of hearing

frequency

The number of complete waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; problems with perception

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea; issues with sensation

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch; brain interprets how often auditory signals are received

gate control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

olfaction

sense of smell

kinesthesia

our movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

general intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

grit

in psychology, is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long term goals.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; is the capacity to learn.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Stanford Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ \= ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

normal curve

the bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion related validity.)

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period.

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

Cross sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life.

Down syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

stereotype threat

a self confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.