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Autobiographical reasoning
the ability, typically developed in adolescence, to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one’s own personal experiences.
Big Five
Openness to Experience - Creativity and willingness to try new things.
Conscientiousness - Organization, dependability, and discipline.
Extraversion - Sociability, assertiveness, and talkativeness.
Agreeableness - Compassion, cooperativeness, and kindness.
Neuroticism - Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.
Ego
engaging in rational thought, and coping with the competing demands of inner desires and moral standards.
Identity
the sense of who a person is as an individual and as a member of social groups
Narrative identity
the internalized and evolving story of the self that a person constructs to make sense and meaning out of his or her life
Redemption narratives
the cultural belief that good things can come out of bad events
Reflexivity
the examination of one's own beliefs, judgments and practices during the research process and how these may have influenced the research
Self as autobiographical author
the concept that individuals actively construct a narrative of their own life, essentially acting as storytellers who interpret their past experiences, present situations, and future aspirations to create a coherent sense of self and identity over time
Self as motivated agent
The sense of the self as an intentional force that strives to achieve goals, plans, values, projects, and the like
Self as social actor
a metaphor for how people think, feel, and behave in the presence of others
Self-esteem
The extent to which a person feels that he or she is worthy and good
Social reputation
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor
The Age 5-to-7 Shift
Cognitive and social changes that occur in the early elementary school years that result sin the child’s developing am ore purposeful, planful, and goal-directed approach to life, setting the stage for the emergence of the self as a motivated agent
The “I”
the sense of the self as a subject who encounters (knows, works on) itself (the Me)
The “Me”
the sense of the self as the object or target of the I’s knowledge and work.
Theory of mind
emerging around the age of 4, the child’s understanding that other people have minds in which are located desires and beliefs, and that desires and beliefs, thereby, motivate behavior
Affective forecasting
predicting how one will feel in the future after some event or decision
Attitude
a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor
Automatic
a behavior or process has one or more of the following features: unintentional, uncontrollable, occurring outside of conscious awareness, and cognitively efficient
Availability heuristic
a heuristic in which the frequency or likelihood of an event is evaluated based on how easily instances of it come to mind
Chameleon effect
the tendency for individuals to coconsciously mimic the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one’s interaction partners
Directional goals
the motivation to reach a particular outcome or judgment
Durability bias
a bias in affective forecasting in which one overestimates for how long one will feel an emotion (positive or negative) after some event
evaluative priming task
an implicit attitude task that assesses the extent to which an attitude object is associated with a positive or negative valence by measuring the time it takes a person to label an adjective as good or bad after being presented with an attitude object
Explicit attitude
an attitude that is consciously held and can be reported on by the person holding the attitude
Heuristics
a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that reduces complex mental problems to more simple rule-based decisions
Hot cognition
the mental processes that are influenced by desires and feelings
Impact bias
a bias in affective forecasting in which one overestimates the strength or intensity of emotion one will experience after some event
Implicit Association Test
an implicit attitude task that assesses a person’s automatic associations between concepts by measuring the response times in pairing the concepts
Implicit attitude
an attitude that a person cannot verbally or overtly state
Implicit measures of attitudes
measures of attitudes in which researchers infer the participant’s attitude rather than having the participant explicitly report it
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to be better able to recall memories that have a mood similar to our current mood
Motivated skepticism
a form of bias that can result from having a directional goal in which one is skeptical of evidence despite its strength because it goes against what one wants to believe
Need for closure
the desire to come to a decision that will resolve ambiguity and conclude an issue
Planning fallacy
a cognitive bias in which one underestimates how long it will take to complete a task
Primed
a process by which a concept or behavior is made more cognitively accessible or likely to occur through the presentation of an associated concept
Representativeness heuristic
a heuristic in which the likelihood of an object belonging to a category is evaluated based on the extent to which the object appears similar to one’s mental representation of the category
Schema
a mental model or representation that organizes the important information about a thing, person, or event (also known as a script)
Social cognition
the study of how people think about the social world
Stereotypes
our general beliefs about the traits or behaviors shared by group of people
Automatic empathy
a social perceiver unwittingly taking on the internal state of another person
False-belief test
a task used to assess a person's ability to understand that others can have different beliefs or mental states than their own
Folk explanations of behavior
the everyday, common-sense way people explain their own actions and the behavior of others, usually by attributing mental states like beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions to the person
Intention
a mental state that involves planning a course of action to achieve a desired goal
Intentionality
the ability to act purposefully or deliberately, guided by mental representations of goals
Joint attention
two people looking at the same object and being aware that they both are looking at it
Mimicry
copying others’ behavior without awareness
Mirror neurons
brain cells that are activated when a person performs an action or observes another person perform the same action
Projection
a social perceiver’s assumption that the other person wants, knows, or feels the same as the perceiver wants, know, or feels
simulation
a process where people understand others by simulating the other person's mental states in their own mind
Synchrony
two people displaying the same behaviors or thinking the same
Theory of mind
the human capacity to understand minds, a capacity that is made up of a collection of concepts (e.g., agent, intentionality) and processes (e.g., goal detection, imitation, empathy, perspective taking)
Visual perspective taking
can refer to visual perspective taking (perceiving something from another person’s spatial vantage point)
Counterfactual thinking
the tendency to imagine how events could have turned out differently, or to create possible alternatives to past events
Downward comparison
making mental comparisons with people who are perceived to be inferior on the standard of comparison
Dunning-Kruger Effect
the tendency for unskilled people to be overconfident in their ability and highly skilled people to underestimate their ability
Fixed mindset
the belief that personal qualities such as intelligence are traits that cannot be developed
Frog Pond Effect
the theory that a person’s comparison group can affect their evaluations of themselves. Specifically, people have a tendency to have lower self-evaluations when comparing themselves to higher performing groups
Growth mindset
the belief that personal qualities, such as intelligence, can be developed through effort and practice
Individual differences
Psychological traits, abilities, aptitudes and tendencies that vary from person to person
Local dominance effect
people are generally more influenced by social comparison when that comparison is personally relevant rather than broad and general
Mastery goals
goals that are focused primarily on learning, competence, and self-development
N-Effect
the finding that increasing the number of competitors generally decreases one’s motivation to compete
Personality
a person’s relatively stable patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior
Proximity
the relative closeness or distance from a given comparison standard. The further from the standard a person is, the less important he or she considers the standard. When a person is closer to the standard he/she is more likely to be competitive
Self-enhancement effect
the feeling of confidence in one’s own abilities or worth
Self-evaluation maintenance (SEM)
a model of social comparison that emphasizes one’s closeness to the comparison target, the relative performance of that target person, and the relevance of the comparison behavior to one’s self-concept
Social category
any group in which membership is defined by similarities between its members. Examples include religious, ethnic, and athletic groups
Social comparison
the process by which people understand their own ability or condition by mentally comparing themselves to others
Upward comparisons
making mental comparisons to people who are perceived to be superior on the standard of comparison
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