The role of the father

According to Schaffer and Emerson (1964), how common is it for the father to be the first sole attachment figure?

It is very rare. In only 3% of cases the father was the first sole object of attachment.

What did Schaffer and Emerson (1964) find about babies forming an attachment with their father by 18 months?

75% of babies had formed an attachment with their father by 18 months, shown by protesting when he walked away.

According to Grossmann et al. (2002), what is the distinctive role of the father as a secondary attachment figure?

Their role is more to do with play and stimulation. The quality of a father's play was related to the quality of the child's adolescent attachments.

What did Grossmann et al. (2002) find regarding the long-term importance of attachment to mothers versus fathers?

The quality of attachment with mothers, but not fathers, was related to attachments in adolescence, suggesting attachment to mothers is more important for emotional development.

Can fathers be primary attachment figures? What did Field (1978) find?

Yes. Field (1978) found that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating, and holding babies (behaviours linked to attachment formation) than secondary caregiver fathers.

What is one major limitation of research into the role of the father?

There is confusion over the research question. It's unclear if researchers are studying fathers as primary or secondary attachment figures, which leads to conflicting answers about their role.

What is the conflicting evidence regarding the necessity of a father for normal development?

While some studies (e.g., Grossmann) suggest fathers have a distinct role, studies of single-mother and lesbian-parent families (e.g., McCallum and Golombok 2004) show children develop no differently, challenging the idea of a unique, necessary role.

What is a positive real-world application of this research?

It can reduce parental anxiety by showing that fathers are capable primary caregivers, and that children without a father figure do not develop differently, allowing families to make flexible, less pressured choices.

What does the research say about families without a father?

There is no suggestion from respectable psychologists that having a single parent or same-gender parents has any negative impact on a child's development.

What potential bias exists in this area of research?

Observer bias may occur, where researchers see what they expect based on stereotypes (e.g., that fathers are not nurturing primary caregivers), rather than recording objective reality.