Study Guide_ Descartes' Meditations & Locke’s Dream Argument (1)

Indubitable foundation for knowledge

A certain and unquestionable base upon which knowledge can be established, sought by Descartes.

Methodical skepticism

A systematic process for doubting the veracity of one’s beliefs to uncover certain knowledge.

Cogito, ergo sum

Latin for "I think, therefore I am"; a fundamental element of Descartes' philosophy proving one's own existence through the act of thinking.

Res cogitans

The term Descartes uses to describe the nature of the self as a thinking thing.

Evil Demon Hypothesis

A philosophical idea proposed by Descartes suggesting a powerful deceiver could manipulate perceptions and ideas.

Tabula Rasa

Locke’s concept meaning 'blank slate,' implying that individuals are born without innate ideas and all knowledge comes from experience.

Coherence and consistency in experiences

Locke’s argument that waking experiences are structured and logical, unlike the disjointed nature of dreams.

British empiricism

The philosophical theory associated with Locke, stating that knowledge is primarily based on sensory experience.

Counterarguments to radical skepticism

Locke’s arguments against Descartes' extreme doubt, emphasizing that experience and memory provide a basis for distinguishing reality from dreams.

Mind-body dualism

Descartes' theory that the mind and body are distinct and fundamentally different substances.

Contradiction of innate ideas

Locke's critique of the notion that certain concepts or principles exist in the mind at birth.

Mathematical truths as clear and distinct

An argument by Descartes that since mathematical properties are clear and self-evident, they must exist in a real form.

Cartesian Circle

A potential logical flaw in Descartes' reasoning regarding the validation of clear and distinct ideas through the existence of God.

Descartes' method of doubt

A philosophical approach by Descartes involving systematic questioning of beliefs to establish certainty.

Clear and distinct perceptions

Descartes' criteria for truth, suggesting that only perceptions that are clear and distinct can be considered true knowledge.

Empirical evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation, foundational to empiricism as advocated by Locke.

Modern philosophy

A new philosophical approach that emerged in the 17th century, characterized by the shift from metaphysical to epistemological questions.

Rationalism

The philosophical belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge, contrasting with empiricism.

Substance dualism

The idea that the mind and body are separate, a key aspect of Descartes' philosophy.

John Locke's epistemology

Locke’s theory of knowledge emphasizing that all knowledge comes from sensory experiences.

Tabula Rasa vs. innate ideas

The debate between Locke's 'blank slate' theory and the concept that humans have inherent knowledge at birth.

Skepticism in philosophy

A critical approach that questions the possibility of certain knowledge.

Pragmatism

A philosophical approach that assesses the truth of beliefs based on their practical outcomes.

Foundationalism

The philosophical view that certain beliefs serve as the foundation for all other beliefs.

Perceptual knowledge

Knowledge derived from the senses, often discussed in contrast to rational knowledge.

Skeptical hypotheses

Theoretical scenarios that challenge the certainty of knowledge, such as dreaming or deception scenarios.

Foundational beliefs

Basic beliefs that are accepted without justification and upon which all other knowledge is built.

Critical rationalism

A philosophy proposed by Karl Popper that emphasizes falsifiability as the criterion for scientific theories.

Intuitionism

A theory in ethics and epistemology that asserts that truths can be known through intuition.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, affecting decision-making.

Phenomenalism

The philosophical theory that physical objects do not exist as things in themselves but only as perceptual phenomena.

Epistemic justification

The processes and reasons that make beliefs justified or rational in epistemology.

Contextualism

The theory in epistemology that argues the truth-value of knowledge claims is context-dependent.

Epistemology

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, including its limits and validity.

Empirical justification

The process of validating beliefs through evidence gathered from sensory experience.

Justification of belief

The rationale behind why a belief is held to be true or valid in epistemology.

Radical skepticism

A position in epistemology that questions the possibility of having any knowledge at all.

Fallibilism

The philosophical principle that all claims to knowledge could potentially be wrong.

Causal inference

A reasoning process that attempts to determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables.

Objective knowledge

Knowledge that is based on observable phenomena and independent of personal feelings or opinions.

Cognitive certainty

The degree of confidence one has in the truth of a belief or knowledge claim.

Phenomenal knowledge

Knowledge gained through direct experience of phenomena, rather than purely through theoretical reasoning.

Conceptual analysis

The method of breaking down complex concepts into simpler components to understand their meaning.

What does Descartes mean by 'clear and distinct perceptions'?

Perceptions that are certain and unambiguous, which Descartes considers to be the criteria for true knowledge.

How does Locke's theory differ from rationalism?

Locke's theory emphasizes experience as the source of knowledge, while rationalism believes that reason is the primary source.

What is the significance of the Cogito in Descartes' philosophy?

It establishes the fundamental certainty of one's existence based on the capacity to think.

What challenges does the Evil Demon Hypothesis pose?

It suggests that one's perceptions and beliefs could be entirely manipulated by a powerful deceiver, raising doubts about the certainty of knowledge.

Define 'epistemic justification'.

The justification mechanisms that support the validity of a belief in epistemology.

What is the role of perception in empiricism?

Perception is foundational, as empiricism holds that all knowledge originates from sensory experience.

Can knowledge be entirely objective according to empiricism?

Empiricism asserts that knowledge is based on observable phenomena, but experiences can be subjective.

What is a skeptical hypothesis?

A scenario that challenges the certainty of knowledge, often suggesting alternative explanations for our perceptions.

Explain the term 'substance dualism'.

The concept that the mind and body consist of different fundamental substances.

What is the essence of foundationalism in epistemology?

It holds that certain beliefs are the basis for all other beliefs, providing a foundation for knowledge.

What is the nature of Locke’s Tabula Rasa concept?

It posits that individuals start without inherent knowledge, and all understanding originates from experience.

How does Descartes differentiate between the mind and body?

He argues that the mind is a non-physical substance (res cogitans) while the body is a physical substance (res extensa).

What role does empirical evidence play in Locke's philosophy?

It serves as the foundation for knowledge, emphasizing observation and experience as essential for understanding.

Define the 'Evil Demon Hypothesis' in relation to skepticism.

It illustrates a scenario where a deceptive force can distort perceptions, challenging the reliability of sensory experience.

In what way does radical skepticism affect the search for knowledge?

It questions the possibility of acquiring any true knowledge, often leading to a sense of doubt about all beliefs.

What is the primary focus of epistemology?

It explores the nature, scope, and limits of knowledge, including what justifies beliefs.

How does Descartes establish the existence of the self?

Through the statement 'Cogito, ergo sum', he asserts that the act of thinking confirms one's existence.

What is the significance of coherence in Locke's epistemology?

It suggests that consistent and logical experiences form the basis for distinguishing reality from dreams.

Explain the concept of foundational beliefs in epistemology.

They are basic beliefs accepted without external justification, serving as the groundwork for further knowledge.

What is the difference between rationalism and empiricism?

Rationalism values reason as the primary source of knowledge, while empiricism holds that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experiences.

Example of fallibilism in science

The scientific method relies on the principle that theories can be revised or rejected based on new evidence, illustrating fallibilism.

Example of a skeptical hypothesis

The 'brain-in-a-vat' scenario suggests that one could be a brain artificially stimulated to perceive reality, casting doubt on what is considered real.

Example of empirical evidence in medicine

Clinical trials use patient data and observations to assess treatment efficacy, demonstrating the role of empirical evidence.

The role of intuition in intuitionism

Moral truths, such as 'it is wrong to torture', can be known through intuitive insight rather than empirical evidence.

Pragmatism in everyday decision-making

Choosing a career based on practical outcomes rather than ideological beliefs exemplifies pragmatism.

Substance dualism in neuroscience

The distinction between brain activity (physical) and consciousness (non-physical) illustrates the concept of substance dualism.

Contextualism in legal judgments

Determining whether a statement is defamatory may vary based on the context, supporting contextualism.

Example of cognitive biases affecting judgment

Confirmation bias leads individuals to favor information that supports their existing beliefs, skewing objective analysis.

Practical applications of justified beliefs

A scientist stands by a theory due to extensive evidence supporting it, exemplifying justified belief.

Coherence theory of truth

An individual's beliefs about health based on consistent medical findings demonstrate the coherence theory of truth.