Western Civilization Final

Agricultural Revolution

Agricultural Revolution

A period of significant change in agriculture that began around 10,000 BCE with the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled farming communities. It involved the domestication of plants and animals, leading to increased food production and the development of agricultural practices.

Albigensian Crusade

A military campaign initiated by the Catholic Church in the early 13th century against the Cathars, a Christian sect in the Languedoc region of France. The crusade aimed to eliminate heresy and strengthen the influence of the Catholic Church.

Alexius Comnenus

Byzantine emperor who ruled from 1081 to 1118. He faced challenges from the Normans and the First Crusade during his reign.

Avignon Papacy

Also known as the Babylonian Captivity, it was a period from 1309 to 1377 when the popes resided in Avignon, France, instead of Rome. This relocation was due to political and conflict-related reasons.

Black Death

A devastating pandemic that struck Europe in the 14th century, causing widespread death. It is primarily associated with the bubonic plague, which was transmitted by fleas infesting rats

Bubonic Plague

A highly contagious and often deadly bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis. The bubonic plague is characterized by swollen and painful lymph nodes, known as buboes.

Capetians

A medieval dynasty that ruled France from the 10th to the 18th century. The Capetian dynasty played a crucial role in the consolidation of royal power in France.

Chrétien de Troyes

A medieval French poet and writer known for his contributions to Arthurian romance literature, including works like "Lancelot" and "Perceval."

Cistercians

A monastic order founded in 1098, known for its emphasis on austerity, manual labor, and a strict observance of the Rule of St. Benedict.

Clare of Assisi

A follower of St. Francis of Assisi and the founder of the Order of Poor Ladies, later known as the Poor Clares. She embraced a life of poverty and devotion to God.

Cluny

A Benedictine monastery in Burgundy, France, known for its role in the Cluniac reforms that sought to restore discipline and spirituality to monastic life.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following the voyages of Christopher Columbus in the late 15th century.

Concordat of Worms

An agreement reached in 1122 between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, which resolved the Investiture Conflict by establishing a compromise on the appointment of bishops and abbots.

Conversos

Jewish or Muslim individuals in medieval Spain who converted to Christianity, often under duress. The term is also used to refer to their descendants.

Council of Clermont

A council convened by Pope Urban II in 1095, where he called for the First Crusade to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control.

Council of Constance

A council held from 1414 to 1418 to address the Western Schism and other issues within the Catholic Church. It elected Pope Martin V and sought to reunify the Church.

Council of Pisa

A council held in 1409 in an attempt to resolve the Great Schism by electing a new pope, but it ended up adding another pope, exacerbating the schism.

Courtly Romance

A genre of medieval literature that romanticized chivalry and courtly love, often involving knights, damsels in distress, and quests.

Crusader Kingdoms

Territories in the Levant (Middle East) that were established by European Christian crusaders during the medieval period, such as the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Queen consort of France and later England, known for her political influence, involvement in the arts, and being the mother of Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland.

Feudalism

A medieval social, economic, and political system characterized by the exchange of land (fiefs) for service and loyalty.

Fief

A piece of land granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for loyalty and military service.

Francis of Assisi

An Italian Catholic friar and preacher who founded the Franciscan Order. He is known for his love of nature, humility, and simplicity.

Franciscans

Members of the religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi, emphasizing poverty, humility, and service to the poor.

Granada

The last Muslim stronghold in Spain, which fell to Catholic forces in 1492, marking the completion of the Reconquista.

Great Famine

A period of widespread food shortages in Europe from 1315 to 1317, leading to famine and social upheaval.

Great Schism

A split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417, during which there were rival popes in Avignon and Rome, leading to confusion and division.

Henry II, King of England

A medieval English king (reigned 1154–1189) known for strengthening royal authority, reforms in the legal system, and conflicts with Thomas Becket.

Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Holy Roman Emperor (reigned 1084–1105) involved in the Investiture Conflict with Pope Gregory VII.

Homage

A ceremony in feudal society where a vassal pledged loyalty and service to a lord, often symbolized by the vassal kneeling and placing his hands between those of the lord.

Hundred Years’ War

A series of conflicts between England and France from 1337 to 1453, marked by battles such as Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt.

Indulgences

Pardons granted by the Catholic Church that reduced the punishment for sins. The sale of indulgences became a contentious issue during the Reformation.

Inquisition

A series of institutions within the Catholic Church aimed at suppressing heresy. The most notorious was the Spanish Inquisition.

Investiture Conflict

A power struggle between the papacy and secular rulers over the appointment of bishops and other church officials

Joan of Arc

A French peasant girl who played a key role in the Hundred Years' War, claiming to have visions from saints. She was later captured and executed.

John, King of England

Also known as John Lackland, he was King of England from 1199 to 1216. His reign was marked by conflicts with barons, leading to the sealing of the Magna Carta.

Magna Carta

A historic document signed in 1215 that limited the power of the English monarch and established certain legal rights for English citizens. It is considered a foundational document in the development of constitutional governance.

Manzikert

The Battle of Manzikert took place in 1071 between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks. The Seljuks won, leading to the decline of Byzantine influence in Anatolia.

Marie de Champagne

A medieval French noblewoman and patron of the arts, known for her support of troubadours and poets.

Marie de France

A medieval poet who wrote in Old French, best known for her works on the Arthurian legend and lais (short narrative poems).

Mendicant Orders

Religious orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans, that emphasized a lifestyle of poverty and itinerant preaching, relying on charity for sustenance.

Monasticism

A religious way of life involving communal living and a vow of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Monastic communities, such as those following the Rule of St. Benedict, played a significant role in medieval society.

Ottoman Turks, Ottomans

A Turkish state and later an empire that emerged in Anatolia in the late medieval period, eventually expanding into southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Peasants’ Revolts

Uprisings by rural peasants against feudal lords or oppressive conditions. One notable example is the English Peasants' Revolt of 1381.

Philip II Augustus

King of France from 1180 to 1223, known for consolidating royal power, expanding territories, and participating in the Third Crusade.

Pope Gregory VII

Pope from 1073 to 1085, known for his efforts to reform the Church, including the Investiture Conflict with Emperor Henry IV.

Pope Innocent III

Pope from 1198 to 1216, considered one of the most powerful medieval popes. He played a key role in the Fourth Crusade and the Fourth Lateran Council.

Pope Urban II

Pope from 1088 to 1099, known for initiating the First Crusade with his speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095.

Reconquista

A period of several centuries during which Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula sought to recapture territory from Muslim rule.

Runnymede

The site in England where King John signed the Magna Carta in 1215, a pivotal moment in the establishment of constitutional principles.

Sephardim

Jews of Spanish and Portuguese descent. The term is often associated with Jewish communities that were expelled from Spain in 1492.

Simony

The buying or selling of sacred offices or privileges, particularly within the Catholic Church.

Spanish Inquisition

Established in the late 15th century, it was a series of tribunals initiated by Catholic monarchs in Spain to identify and eliminate heresy.

Troubadours

Poet-musicians of the medieval courts in southern France, known for composing and performing lyric poetry about chivalry and courtly love.

Usury

The practice of charging excessive interest on loans, often considered sinful in medieval Christian theology.

Vassals

In feudalism, individuals who pledged loyalty and service to a lord in exchange for land (fief).

Viking

Norse seafarers and warriors who engaged in raiding and exploration from the late 8th to the early 11th century.

Waldensians

Followers of Peter Waldo, who advocated for a return to the simplicity and poverty of early Christianity. The Waldensians were considered heretical by the Catholic Church.

William IX of Aquitaine

Also known as William the Troubadour, he was a medieval poet and the Duke of Aquitaine in the 11th century.

William the Conqueror

Duke of Normandy who became King of England after the Norman Conquest in 1066, marking the beginning of Norman rule in England.