AP Human Geography STUDY GUIDE
Human geography is the study of the Earth and its environment relating to human activity
Space is the surface of the Earth
Different types of terrain and its features
Activity space is where specific activities take place
Time-space compression: decreased time and distance barriers due to modern methods of communication and transportation
Sense of place is human perception and association with a certain place
Place is a space within certain boundaries that is important
Toponyms are specific names given to places
Exonyms are used in other places, endonyms are what they call themselves
Regions are groups of places connected by physical proximity, shared geography, or common culture
Sequent occupancy is the chronological succession of groups and cultures living in a place or region
Formal regions are defined spaces with legal borders or common features
Functional regions have a node or central place as a focal point with a practical purpose
Vernacular regions are based on perception or cognitive map
Ecotone is the transition zone between one environmental region to another
Cognitive distance is the perceived distance between two or more points
Relative distance is the measure of social, economic, cultural, and political relationships between two places
Linear/absolute distance is the absolute distance between two locations
Distance decay: the farther apart locations are from the place of origin, the less likely interactions will be
Tobler’s law: all things are related, but those physically closer will develop stronger
Friction of distance: quality of interaction will decline with distance (you and a LDR)
Thematic maps illustrate a theme of the land
Population density, population size, areas of precipitation
Physical maps represent physical features using contour lines
Political maps show borders between cities, states, or countries
Symbol/graduated symbol maps use symbols to indicate magnitude of values in a region
Topographic maps display contour lines of the Earth
Elevation, climate zones, terrain
Choropleth maps show areas shaded in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable
Percentages, rates, likelihoods
Isoline maps use lines to depict values
Related to topographic maps
Map distortion involves shape, area, distance, direction (SADD)
Mercator: latitude and longitude represent true direction; poles are distorted; Europe is beefy
Gall-Peters: tries to fix Mercator; sizes are accurate but shapes are weird
Polar: views world from North or South Pole; distortion at edges
Robinson: compromise between Mercator and Peters; equal distortion
Goode Homolosine: interrupted map with more distortion near edges
Conformal maps preserve the shape of features on the map but distort the size of features
Absolute location uses coordinates to describe the position on Earth’s surface
Coordinates of longitude and latitude
Relative location defines location based on significant features or proximity to landmarks
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to Earth as a whole
Relative scale is the level at which things are grouped for study
Quantitative data is numbers, qualitative data is people
Geospatial technologies use hardware or software to examine and measure geographical features
GPS: global positioning system
Reliant on satellites that emit radio signals
Generates map data and locations
GIS: geographic information systems
Layers of data generate maps for spatial analysis
Remote sensing: taking pictures of the Earth’s surface from satellites
Scales of analysis: analyzing patterns and relationships within an area
Local: immediate surroundings (smaller scale)
National: the country; focused on data for each country
Regional: collection of states or countries
Global: the earth
Environmental determinism: the environment causes human behavior and culture
Possibilism: environment limits human behavior but doesn’t cause it
Climate types
Subtropical: hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters
Mediterranean: mild winters with no rain, no snow, often coastal areas
Savannahs: short rainy season and vegetation for part of the year
Temperate (middle latitudes)
Maritime: influenced by oceans, steady temperatures
Continental: hotter summers and coolers winters with distinct seasons
Europe and East Asia are leaders in renewable energy
Germany, China, Japan: solar energy
Germany, Spain: wind power
US, France: nuclear energy
Ecumene: portion of Earth occupied by human settlement
Historically closer to water
Carrying capacity: ability to support human life
Arithmetic density: number of people / sq unit
Agricultural density: number of farmers / sq unit of arable land
Physiological density: number of people / sq unit of arable land
Arable land: suitable for agriculture
Demography: statistical study of human populations
Rate of Natural Increase: (births - deaths) / 10
Doubling time is calculated by 70 / (RNI)
Hidden momentum: built-in population growth due to a population's age structure (children becoming reproductive-age adults)
Crude birth rate: people born / 1000 people
Crude death rate: people die / 1000 people
Total fertility rate: the average number of children born to each woman during her lifetime
Infant mortality rate: deaths before 1 / 1000 live births
Negative net migration is where more emigration than immigration
The Demographic Transition Model has 5 stages to explain birth, death, and populations
Developed nations fall into stages 4 and 5
Stage One: hunter-gatherer societies without large-scale settled agriculture
Stage Two: settled agriculture with seasonal harvests and domesticated livestock
Stage Three: mass production and labor replace farm labor; degenerative diseases
Stage Four: societies in post-industrial phase, service industry is the economy’s backbone
Population Pyramids show age and sex distribution in a country
High birth rates will have wider bottoms
Dependency ratio: non-workers (children & elderly) to workers
Pro or anti-natalist policies encourage or limit birth
Thomas Malthus predicted the population would grow too large in proportion to food output
The Industrial Revolution & Green Revolution
Neo-Malthusians are modern people who agree with his theory
Push factors force someone to move away (emigrate)
Political instability, persecution, lack of opportunity, crime
Pull factors draw someone to move to a new location (immigrate)
New job, education, family, economic prosperity
Intervening obstacles prevent migration
Ernst Ravenstein concluded most migrants are young adults and move short distances
Rural → urban; developing → developed
US migration patterns
1840-1850 (Irish and German); 1880-1925 (southern and eastern Europe); 1965-now (yay diversity)
Culture: beliefs, artifacts, and traditions that represent values and social institutions
Material culture (physical items) and non-material culture (abstract)
Folk culture vs popular culture
Folk culture is created by homogenous, isolated groups
Cultural syncretism combines elements of multiple cultures
Cultural convergence: cultures become more similar over time
Cultural divergence: cultures become more different over time
The cultural landscape is an area with layers of human imprints and rich history
Physical features, agricultural and industrial practices, religious and linguistic characteristics
Cultural relativism is the evaluation of another culture by that culture’s standards
Ethnocentrism is the evaluation of another culture by a group’s specific standards
Cultural hearth is a place where people of a culture/ethnic identity originate
Modern English was born as a result of 1066 William the Conqueror
Diffusion is the spread of ideas, behaviors, and information
Relocation: begins with an origin point and travels across major geographic barriers
Expansion: patterns originate in a central location and diffuse outward
Stimulus: consumer/public demands influence commercial or political class to begin services
Contagious: follows a linear trajectory from origin point to nearby locations on line of transport
Hierarchical: pattern originates from a point and diffuses through power structures
The Indo-European Language family’s main branches are Germanic, Indo-Iranian, Romance, and Balto-Slavic
A language isolate is a language with no links or origins with other languages
A pidgin is a simplified form of a language without consistent grammar or syntax
A Creole is a language made of different languages combined
Isogloss: boundary line between linguistic regions (different languages or dialects)
Ethnic religions focus on ethnicity and hearth; universalizing religions appeal to all people
Main world religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism
The three Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Islam, and Christianity
Believe in one true God and are centered around Abraham
Judaism is a monotheistic religion believing in one God; founded by Abraham
Islam is a monotheistic religion from the Middle East that follows Muhammad as Allah’s prophet
Christianity is a monotheistic religion worshipping God and Jesus as His son
Nationality is one’s citizenship and is based on residence
Race is a group based on genetic similarities and perceived skin color
Ethnicity is one’s cultural group with historical ties
Acculturation: an ethnic group moves to a new location and adopts a new culture while retaining their previous one
Folklore: collection of spoken or written stories containing ideas about morality, identity, and culture
Mythology: narratives that surround the origin of societies and history
The Epic of Gilgamesh is the earliest recorded myth
Homer wrote the Illiad and the Odyssey
Beowulf is an epic poem
Ramayana is an epic of Lord Ram (Hinduism)
Fairytales: stories with supernatural elements in the plot
Brothers Grimm compiled popular tales and short stories
Hans Christian Anderson wrote Danish traditional fairytales
Globalization is the process of adopting a global scope and level of interaction
European Community: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands
European Union never agreed on a working constitution
Reactionary politics: strong, traditionalist, conservative political perspectives
Forward capital: symbolically relocated capital city for economic or strategic reasons
Locational interdependence model/theory (Harold Hotelling): competitors will seek to limit each other’s profit by locating stores near each other and their customer base
Heartland theory: Halford Mackinder suggested the heartland of Eastern Europe was the most important area in the world
Pivot area: core of Eurasia
Country: land area often connected to an independent state
State: population under autonomous government
Nation: people who share a common genetic or cultural heritage
Nationalism: intense pride in one’s nation, people, and history
Centrifugal forces pull people apart (different languages, ethnic groups, economic disparities)
Centripetal forces bring people together (common language, culture, political goals, government)
Shatterbelts are regions being fought over by larger external powers
Choke points are geographical areas that need to be reached on the way to a new destination
Control trade and transportation
Colonialism is the act of a country exerting power over another territory by gaining or controlling land
Neocolonialism is the use of political, cultural, or economic power to influence/control a country
Sovereignty is total control over foreign and domestic affairs
Autonomous (self-government, may be under technical jurisdiction of another country)
Semi-autonomous (some form of self-government)
Self-determination is a nation’s process of establishing an independent state
Stateless nations (Kurds and Palestinians)
Irredentism: desire to unite a cultural group divided by boundaries (Germany invading Sudetenland)
Sub-nationalism: pride and loyalty to a sub-national group (Scotland, Quebec)
Superimposed borders are arbitrary boundaries that are often disputed
Boundaries are borders that separate geographical territory
Defined boundaries: established by a legal document
Delimited boundaries: shown on a map
Geometric boundaries follow lines of longitude and latitude
Demarcated boundaries: identified by physical objects
Antecedent boundaries existed before human settlement
Border disputes
Definitional border dispute means a treaty’s differing interpretations lead to conflict
Operational dispute means opposing countries/groups attempt to decide how the border should function
Allocational dispute sees factions competing to control natural resources
Territoriality is the connection of human activities (culture, politics, economic institutions) to land
A defined land area is claimed by a group and protected from external involvement
UNCLOS establishes ocean boundaries and established Exclusive Economic Zones
Unitary states have power in a central government, federal states divide power between central and state governments
Devolution is the transition of power from central governments to sub-unit governments
Reapportionment is the process of redrawing districts based on population loss
Agriculture is the modification of Earth for livestock and crops
Commercial agriculture: farming for profit, large scale
Using machinery and technology
Subsistence agriculture: farming is done for the individual & community, smaller scale
Intensive agriculture: more labor over less land
Extensive agriculture: less labor over more land
Agriculture hearths: areas where agricultural ideas and innovation began and spread from
Nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism is herding animals in places where growing crops is difficult
Transhumance: seasonal migration of nomadic herders from highlands (summer) to lowlands (winter)
Enclosure movement: traditional lands were enclosed and consolidated into large, private farms
More efficient farming practices and increased production
Shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn agriculture (swidden agriculture) clears fields for farming
1st Agricultural Revolution was the invention of farming (Neolithic Revolution) in ancient civilizations
2nd Agricultural Revolution occurred during the Industrial Revolution
3rd Agricultural Revolution refers to the Green Revolution
Hybridization, genetic modification
Norman Borlaug developed disease-resistant wheat (dwarf wheat)
Truck farming is commercial farming and gardening of specialty produce
Suitcase farmers work in agriculture seasonally
Terrace farming involves building farming steps on the sides of hills or mountains
Helpful for collecting rainfall and sustaining crops
Common in South America and Asia
Land surveying involves measuring and determining boundaries
Metes and bounds use locations of physical objects like trees and rivers
Township and range use lines to create rectangular plots
Long lot system created thin sections of land with access to a river/waterway
Rural settlements
Nucleated settlements: close proximity of houses
Dispersed settlements: houses are farther apart
Linear settlements: houses follow lines (roads, rivers, railroads)
Aquaculture: raising of water-based foods
Agribusiness: farming as a large-scale business activity
Genetically modified organisms are crops or livestock that have been genetically altered for better output, but can have health and environmental concerns
Food miles are the distance food is transported from the producer to the consumer
Von Thunen Model
Explains transportation cost associated with distance from market
Crops and livestock that require the most human labor were close to the center
The center contained the most workshops and infrastructure
Intensive farming near market and extensive farming is further
Bid-rent theory: the closer to the CBD, the more price & demand for real estate changes
New urbanism encourages local community development and sustainable growth in an urban area
Urban and suburban sprawl is continuous building extending over a large land/city area
Urbanization is the process by which towns and cities develop
With the GI Bill, veterans were able to move and buy property. White flight, or the migration of white Americans into suburban areas, occurred through much of the 20th century.
Counter-urbanization is the process of an urban population moving to live in suburbs or rural areas
Topocide: deliberate destruction or alteration of locale through industrialization
Site is the unique human and physical characteristics of a place
Natural resources, climate, physical terrain, different buildings
Situation includes characteristics relating to a city’s surrounding features
Most urban areas grow through migration rather than reproduction
Megacity: city with population of over 10 million people
Metacity: city with population of over 20 million people
Primate city: city with a significantly larger population and economy
Political, cultural, and financial hub
Edge cities develop when suburbs grow CBDs and act as a regional hub for a suburban population
Model | Description | Image |
Christaller’s central place theory | City is surrounded by smaller towns, settlements, and hinterlands (market areas) |  |
Burgess concentric zone model | City growth occurs in rings out from CBD |  |
Hoyt sector model | City growth occurs in sectors outward from CBD |  |
Harris & Ullman multiple nuclei model | City growth occurs around important nodes → city has more than one CBD or important node |  |
Chauncey Harris- Galactic city model | City growth created important nodes in periphery of cities all linked by a roadway |  |
Gravity model | Interactions between cities is based on population size and distance |  |
Latin America (Larry Ford and Ernest Griffin), Africa, Southeast Asia city model
Disamentiy zones: poorest areas of cities disconnected from city amenities and controlled by gangs
Zones of abandonment: areas in cities where people have left to pursue other living areas
Rank size rule: the 2nd largest city is about half the size of its largest city
Gentrification: the refurbishment and development of a poorer urban area with the intent to make the area desirable
Footloose industry: industry located at any place without being affected by resources, land, labor, and capital
Growth pole: area where specific industries bring employees, economic growth, and housing development
Technopole: a center of high-tech manufacturing and quaternary growth
Microloans: small loans provided to individuals or small businesses can promote economic development and improve living standards, particularly for women
Substitution principle: a production facility should be located where net profit is greatest
New International Division of Labor: transfer of jobs (low-paid, unskilled) from more developed to less developed countries
Iron law of wages claims real wages trend toward the minimum required for workers to live
Comparative advantage: a country, company, or individual can produce a good/service at a lower opportunity cost than others
Import substitution emphasizes the replacement of imports for local production
Aims to generate local jobs and economic growth
Least cost theory by Alfred Weber argues all corporations make decisions of where to locate facilities based on least possible cost of manufacturing and production for the greatest potential profit
Theory of industrial location: an industry is located where transportation costs of raw materials and final product are low
The Industrial Revolution improved numerous aspects of machines and new energy sources
Sectors of production: economic categories based on steps of production
Primary: cultivation of Earth and its natural resources
Agriculture, mining, energy, fisheries, forestry
Secondary: processing of natural resources and raw materials
Rubber, natural gas, logging, meat processing
Tertiary: service industries retailing goods for consumers
Quarternary: information and knowledge-focused products and service
Quinary: providing essential services (education, healthcare, customer service)
Informal: workers are self-employed and aren’t officially recognized/taxed by the government
GDP (gross domestic product) is the value of goods and services
GNP (gross national product) is the value of goods and services generated by citizens
GNI (gross national income) is the value of citizens’ salaries and incomes
Weight-losing industries involve a single natural resource losing mass during production
Factories are located near inputs
Weight-gaining industries combine several elements into a finished product
Central place theory (retail location): a city’s market area has a threshold and range
Threshold: minimum number of consumers that support the business
Range: minimum number of consumers willing to travel a certain distance
Spatial margin of profitability: the area where demand for a service can generate revenue exceeding cost of operation
Agglomeration: high concentration of activities or enterprises in a general location
Silicon Valley for tech
Deglomeration: overload of related industries causes decentralization and movement of centers
Break of built point: location where transfer of goods from one mode of transport to another (ship to truck)
The UN’s Human Development Index measures economic, social, demographic, and political conditions present
Social characteristics: average number of years in schooling and literacy rates
Demographic characteristics: life expectancy, fertility rates, infant mortality rates
Economic characteristics: GNI and GDP per capita
Scores range from 0-1
Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth (W.W. Rostow in 1960) | Stage 1 = traditional society Stage2 = preconditions for take-off Stage 3 = take-off Stage 4 = drive to maturity Stage 5 = age of mass-consumption |
Wallerstein’s World System Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) | Core countries = most developed countries; Periphery countries = least developed countries Semi-periphery countries = medium levels of development |
Dependency Theory | Countries may depend on other countries for economic survival LDCs depend on MDCs for jobs in primary and secondary employment, while MDCs depend on LDCs to provide low-cost items such as crops and manufactured goods |
Commodity Dependence | Some countries are too dependent on the sale of commodities (raw materials or agricultural goods) a country whose total exports include 60% or more of commodities are considered “commodity dependent” |
Complementarity: engaging in trade can benefit all parties involved
Commodity chains include the activities and processes involved in producing a product
Attaining raw materials, manufacturing/assembling/processing, distribution of final goods, retail sales at market
Migration allows for increasingly diverse cities
Colonial cities saw increasing diversity and high inequality
Post-WWII decolonization, British and French colonies could be granted citizenship
Cape Town was diverse but still segregated under apartheid
Subaltern is an economically and politically disadvantaged population
Acadians were French speakers in Nova Scotia who were expelled by the British and resettled in New Orleans
French influence in Cajun culture
De jure segregation includes official laws and rules for racial segregation
De facto segregation is based on historical and social realities
Prejudice, redlining, racially restrictive covenants
Because of segregation, ethnic enclaves formed
Redlining is the practice of limiting minorities from living in certain neighborhoods
Restrictive covenants were used to prevent minorities from buying homes in certain neighborhoods
Limited home sales to different groups
The mixing of different cultures brings diversity in language, food, customs
New York and London have distinct slang and accents
Many cities in the developing world remain hostile towards women in politics and activism
Sexual harassment, physical intimidation, institutional discrimination
Gentrification is the refurbishment and development of a poorer urban area with the intent to make the area desirable, increasing real estate prices and cost of living
Flippers buy real estate to renovate and resell at higher prices
Section 8 (US Dept of Housing and Urban Development) provides rental assistance vouchers to low-income families
Utilities like water, gas, and electricity are the government/city’s responsibility to maintain for its residents
Water in Flint, MI has been contaminated with lead, waste, and other chemicals since 2014
Brazilian police did not enforce or patrol favelas due to crime
Property taxes are annual taxes paid by owners of private structures
Rent control involves the municipal government setting limits on how much private landlords can charge for rentals
Mixed-use buildings are areas and buildings with a combination of commercial and residential infrastructure
Human geography is the study of the Earth and its environment relating to human activity
Space is the surface of the Earth
Different types of terrain and its features
Activity space is where specific activities take place
Time-space compression: decreased time and distance barriers due to modern methods of communication and transportation
Sense of place is human perception and association with a certain place
Place is a space within certain boundaries that is important
Toponyms are specific names given to places
Exonyms are used in other places, endonyms are what they call themselves
Regions are groups of places connected by physical proximity, shared geography, or common culture
Sequent occupancy is the chronological succession of groups and cultures living in a place or region
Formal regions are defined spaces with legal borders or common features
Functional regions have a node or central place as a focal point with a practical purpose
Vernacular regions are based on perception or cognitive map
Ecotone is the transition zone between one environmental region to another
Cognitive distance is the perceived distance between two or more points
Relative distance is the measure of social, economic, cultural, and political relationships between two places
Linear/absolute distance is the absolute distance between two locations
Distance decay: the farther apart locations are from the place of origin, the less likely interactions will be
Tobler’s law: all things are related, but those physically closer will develop stronger
Friction of distance: quality of interaction will decline with distance (you and a LDR)
Thematic maps illustrate a theme of the land
Population density, population size, areas of precipitation
Physical maps represent physical features using contour lines
Political maps show borders between cities, states, or countries
Symbol/graduated symbol maps use symbols to indicate magnitude of values in a region
Topographic maps display contour lines of the Earth
Elevation, climate zones, terrain
Choropleth maps show areas shaded in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable
Percentages, rates, likelihoods
Isoline maps use lines to depict values
Related to topographic maps
Map distortion involves shape, area, distance, direction (SADD)
Mercator: latitude and longitude represent true direction; poles are distorted; Europe is beefy
Gall-Peters: tries to fix Mercator; sizes are accurate but shapes are weird
Polar: views world from North or South Pole; distortion at edges
Robinson: compromise between Mercator and Peters; equal distortion
Goode Homolosine: interrupted map with more distortion near edges
Conformal maps preserve the shape of features on the map but distort the size of features
Absolute location uses coordinates to describe the position on Earth’s surface
Coordinates of longitude and latitude
Relative location defines location based on significant features or proximity to landmarks
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to Earth as a whole
Relative scale is the level at which things are grouped for study
Quantitative data is numbers, qualitative data is people
Geospatial technologies use hardware or software to examine and measure geographical features
GPS: global positioning system
Reliant on satellites that emit radio signals
Generates map data and locations
GIS: geographic information systems
Layers of data generate maps for spatial analysis
Remote sensing: taking pictures of the Earth’s surface from satellites
Scales of analysis: analyzing patterns and relationships within an area
Local: immediate surroundings (smaller scale)
National: the country; focused on data for each country
Regional: collection of states or countries
Global: the earth
Environmental determinism: the environment causes human behavior and culture
Possibilism: environment limits human behavior but doesn’t cause it
Climate types
Subtropical: hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters
Mediterranean: mild winters with no rain, no snow, often coastal areas
Savannahs: short rainy season and vegetation for part of the year
Temperate (middle latitudes)
Maritime: influenced by oceans, steady temperatures
Continental: hotter summers and coolers winters with distinct seasons
Europe and East Asia are leaders in renewable energy
Germany, China, Japan: solar energy
Germany, Spain: wind power
US, France: nuclear energy
Ecumene: portion of Earth occupied by human settlement
Historically closer to water
Carrying capacity: ability to support human life
Arithmetic density: number of people / sq unit
Agricultural density: number of farmers / sq unit of arable land
Physiological density: number of people / sq unit of arable land
Arable land: suitable for agriculture
Demography: statistical study of human populations
Rate of Natural Increase: (births - deaths) / 10
Doubling time is calculated by 70 / (RNI)
Hidden momentum: built-in population growth due to a population's age structure (children becoming reproductive-age adults)
Crude birth rate: people born / 1000 people
Crude death rate: people die / 1000 people
Total fertility rate: the average number of children born to each woman during her lifetime
Infant mortality rate: deaths before 1 / 1000 live births
Negative net migration is where more emigration than immigration
The Demographic Transition Model has 5 stages to explain birth, death, and populations
Developed nations fall into stages 4 and 5
Stage One: hunter-gatherer societies without large-scale settled agriculture
Stage Two: settled agriculture with seasonal harvests and domesticated livestock
Stage Three: mass production and labor replace farm labor; degenerative diseases
Stage Four: societies in post-industrial phase, service industry is the economy’s backbone
Population Pyramids show age and sex distribution in a country
High birth rates will have wider bottoms
Dependency ratio: non-workers (children & elderly) to workers
Pro or anti-natalist policies encourage or limit birth
Thomas Malthus predicted the population would grow too large in proportion to food output
The Industrial Revolution & Green Revolution
Neo-Malthusians are modern people who agree with his theory
Push factors force someone to move away (emigrate)
Political instability, persecution, lack of opportunity, crime
Pull factors draw someone to move to a new location (immigrate)
New job, education, family, economic prosperity
Intervening obstacles prevent migration
Ernst Ravenstein concluded most migrants are young adults and move short distances
Rural → urban; developing → developed
US migration patterns
1840-1850 (Irish and German); 1880-1925 (southern and eastern Europe); 1965-now (yay diversity)
Culture: beliefs, artifacts, and traditions that represent values and social institutions
Material culture (physical items) and non-material culture (abstract)
Folk culture vs popular culture
Folk culture is created by homogenous, isolated groups
Cultural syncretism combines elements of multiple cultures
Cultural convergence: cultures become more similar over time
Cultural divergence: cultures become more different over time
The cultural landscape is an area with layers of human imprints and rich history
Physical features, agricultural and industrial practices, religious and linguistic characteristics
Cultural relativism is the evaluation of another culture by that culture’s standards
Ethnocentrism is the evaluation of another culture by a group’s specific standards
Cultural hearth is a place where people of a culture/ethnic identity originate
Modern English was born as a result of 1066 William the Conqueror
Diffusion is the spread of ideas, behaviors, and information
Relocation: begins with an origin point and travels across major geographic barriers
Expansion: patterns originate in a central location and diffuse outward
Stimulus: consumer/public demands influence commercial or political class to begin services
Contagious: follows a linear trajectory from origin point to nearby locations on line of transport
Hierarchical: pattern originates from a point and diffuses through power structures
The Indo-European Language family’s main branches are Germanic, Indo-Iranian, Romance, and Balto-Slavic
A language isolate is a language with no links or origins with other languages
A pidgin is a simplified form of a language without consistent grammar or syntax
A Creole is a language made of different languages combined
Isogloss: boundary line between linguistic regions (different languages or dialects)
Ethnic religions focus on ethnicity and hearth; universalizing religions appeal to all people
Main world religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism
The three Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Islam, and Christianity
Believe in one true God and are centered around Abraham
Judaism is a monotheistic religion believing in one God; founded by Abraham
Islam is a monotheistic religion from the Middle East that follows Muhammad as Allah’s prophet
Christianity is a monotheistic religion worshipping God and Jesus as His son
Nationality is one’s citizenship and is based on residence
Race is a group based on genetic similarities and perceived skin color
Ethnicity is one’s cultural group with historical ties
Acculturation: an ethnic group moves to a new location and adopts a new culture while retaining their previous one
Folklore: collection of spoken or written stories containing ideas about morality, identity, and culture
Mythology: narratives that surround the origin of societies and history
The Epic of Gilgamesh is the earliest recorded myth
Homer wrote the Illiad and the Odyssey
Beowulf is an epic poem
Ramayana is an epic of Lord Ram (Hinduism)
Fairytales: stories with supernatural elements in the plot
Brothers Grimm compiled popular tales and short stories
Hans Christian Anderson wrote Danish traditional fairytales
Globalization is the process of adopting a global scope and level of interaction
European Community: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands
European Union never agreed on a working constitution
Reactionary politics: strong, traditionalist, conservative political perspectives
Forward capital: symbolically relocated capital city for economic or strategic reasons
Locational interdependence model/theory (Harold Hotelling): competitors will seek to limit each other’s profit by locating stores near each other and their customer base
Heartland theory: Halford Mackinder suggested the heartland of Eastern Europe was the most important area in the world
Pivot area: core of Eurasia
Country: land area often connected to an independent state
State: population under autonomous government
Nation: people who share a common genetic or cultural heritage
Nationalism: intense pride in one’s nation, people, and history
Centrifugal forces pull people apart (different languages, ethnic groups, economic disparities)
Centripetal forces bring people together (common language, culture, political goals, government)
Shatterbelts are regions being fought over by larger external powers
Choke points are geographical areas that need to be reached on the way to a new destination
Control trade and transportation
Colonialism is the act of a country exerting power over another territory by gaining or controlling land
Neocolonialism is the use of political, cultural, or economic power to influence/control a country
Sovereignty is total control over foreign and domestic affairs
Autonomous (self-government, may be under technical jurisdiction of another country)
Semi-autonomous (some form of self-government)
Self-determination is a nation’s process of establishing an independent state
Stateless nations (Kurds and Palestinians)
Irredentism: desire to unite a cultural group divided by boundaries (Germany invading Sudetenland)
Sub-nationalism: pride and loyalty to a sub-national group (Scotland, Quebec)
Superimposed borders are arbitrary boundaries that are often disputed
Boundaries are borders that separate geographical territory
Defined boundaries: established by a legal document
Delimited boundaries: shown on a map
Geometric boundaries follow lines of longitude and latitude
Demarcated boundaries: identified by physical objects
Antecedent boundaries existed before human settlement
Border disputes
Definitional border dispute means a treaty’s differing interpretations lead to conflict
Operational dispute means opposing countries/groups attempt to decide how the border should function
Allocational dispute sees factions competing to control natural resources
Territoriality is the connection of human activities (culture, politics, economic institutions) to land
A defined land area is claimed by a group and protected from external involvement
UNCLOS establishes ocean boundaries and established Exclusive Economic Zones
Unitary states have power in a central government, federal states divide power between central and state governments
Devolution is the transition of power from central governments to sub-unit governments
Reapportionment is the process of redrawing districts based on population loss
Agriculture is the modification of Earth for livestock and crops
Commercial agriculture: farming for profit, large scale
Using machinery and technology
Subsistence agriculture: farming is done for the individual & community, smaller scale
Intensive agriculture: more labor over less land
Extensive agriculture: less labor over more land
Agriculture hearths: areas where agricultural ideas and innovation began and spread from
Nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism is herding animals in places where growing crops is difficult
Transhumance: seasonal migration of nomadic herders from highlands (summer) to lowlands (winter)
Enclosure movement: traditional lands were enclosed and consolidated into large, private farms
More efficient farming practices and increased production
Shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn agriculture (swidden agriculture) clears fields for farming
1st Agricultural Revolution was the invention of farming (Neolithic Revolution) in ancient civilizations
2nd Agricultural Revolution occurred during the Industrial Revolution
3rd Agricultural Revolution refers to the Green Revolution
Hybridization, genetic modification
Norman Borlaug developed disease-resistant wheat (dwarf wheat)
Truck farming is commercial farming and gardening of specialty produce
Suitcase farmers work in agriculture seasonally
Terrace farming involves building farming steps on the sides of hills or mountains
Helpful for collecting rainfall and sustaining crops
Common in South America and Asia
Land surveying involves measuring and determining boundaries
Metes and bounds use locations of physical objects like trees and rivers
Township and range use lines to create rectangular plots
Long lot system created thin sections of land with access to a river/waterway
Rural settlements
Nucleated settlements: close proximity of houses
Dispersed settlements: houses are farther apart
Linear settlements: houses follow lines (roads, rivers, railroads)
Aquaculture: raising of water-based foods
Agribusiness: farming as a large-scale business activity
Genetically modified organisms are crops or livestock that have been genetically altered for better output, but can have health and environmental concerns
Food miles are the distance food is transported from the producer to the consumer
Von Thunen Model
Explains transportation cost associated with distance from market
Crops and livestock that require the most human labor were close to the center
The center contained the most workshops and infrastructure
Intensive farming near market and extensive farming is further
Bid-rent theory: the closer to the CBD, the more price & demand for real estate changes
New urbanism encourages local community development and sustainable growth in an urban area
Urban and suburban sprawl is continuous building extending over a large land/city area
Urbanization is the process by which towns and cities develop
With the GI Bill, veterans were able to move and buy property. White flight, or the migration of white Americans into suburban areas, occurred through much of the 20th century.
Counter-urbanization is the process of an urban population moving to live in suburbs or rural areas
Topocide: deliberate destruction or alteration of locale through industrialization
Site is the unique human and physical characteristics of a place
Natural resources, climate, physical terrain, different buildings
Situation includes characteristics relating to a city’s surrounding features
Most urban areas grow through migration rather than reproduction
Megacity: city with population of over 10 million people
Metacity: city with population of over 20 million people
Primate city: city with a significantly larger population and economy
Political, cultural, and financial hub
Edge cities develop when suburbs grow CBDs and act as a regional hub for a suburban population
Model | Description | Image |
Christaller’s central place theory | City is surrounded by smaller towns, settlements, and hinterlands (market areas) | |
Burgess concentric zone model | City growth occurs in rings out from CBD | |
Hoyt sector model | City growth occurs in sectors outward from CBD | |
Harris & Ullman multiple nuclei model | City growth occurs around important nodes → city has more than one CBD or important node | |
Chauncey Harris- Galactic city model | City growth created important nodes in periphery of cities all linked by a roadway | |
Gravity model | Interactions between cities is based on population size and distance | |
Latin America (Larry Ford and Ernest Griffin), Africa, Southeast Asia city model
Disamentiy zones: poorest areas of cities disconnected from city amenities and controlled by gangs
Zones of abandonment: areas in cities where people have left to pursue other living areas
Rank size rule: the 2nd largest city is about half the size of its largest city
Gentrification: the refurbishment and development of a poorer urban area with the intent to make the area desirable
Footloose industry: industry located at any place without being affected by resources, land, labor, and capital
Growth pole: area where specific industries bring employees, economic growth, and housing development
Technopole: a center of high-tech manufacturing and quaternary growth
Microloans: small loans provided to individuals or small businesses can promote economic development and improve living standards, particularly for women
Substitution principle: a production facility should be located where net profit is greatest
New International Division of Labor: transfer of jobs (low-paid, unskilled) from more developed to less developed countries
Iron law of wages claims real wages trend toward the minimum required for workers to live
Comparative advantage: a country, company, or individual can produce a good/service at a lower opportunity cost than others
Import substitution emphasizes the replacement of imports for local production
Aims to generate local jobs and economic growth
Least cost theory by Alfred Weber argues all corporations make decisions of where to locate facilities based on least possible cost of manufacturing and production for the greatest potential profit
Theory of industrial location: an industry is located where transportation costs of raw materials and final product are low
The Industrial Revolution improved numerous aspects of machines and new energy sources
Sectors of production: economic categories based on steps of production
Primary: cultivation of Earth and its natural resources
Agriculture, mining, energy, fisheries, forestry
Secondary: processing of natural resources and raw materials
Rubber, natural gas, logging, meat processing
Tertiary: service industries retailing goods for consumers
Quarternary: information and knowledge-focused products and service
Quinary: providing essential services (education, healthcare, customer service)
Informal: workers are self-employed and aren’t officially recognized/taxed by the government
GDP (gross domestic product) is the value of goods and services
GNP (gross national product) is the value of goods and services generated by citizens
GNI (gross national income) is the value of citizens’ salaries and incomes
Weight-losing industries involve a single natural resource losing mass during production
Factories are located near inputs
Weight-gaining industries combine several elements into a finished product
Central place theory (retail location): a city’s market area has a threshold and range
Threshold: minimum number of consumers that support the business
Range: minimum number of consumers willing to travel a certain distance
Spatial margin of profitability: the area where demand for a service can generate revenue exceeding cost of operation
Agglomeration: high concentration of activities or enterprises in a general location
Silicon Valley for tech
Deglomeration: overload of related industries causes decentralization and movement of centers
Break of built point: location where transfer of goods from one mode of transport to another (ship to truck)
The UN’s Human Development Index measures economic, social, demographic, and political conditions present
Social characteristics: average number of years in schooling and literacy rates
Demographic characteristics: life expectancy, fertility rates, infant mortality rates
Economic characteristics: GNI and GDP per capita
Scores range from 0-1
Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth (W.W. Rostow in 1960) | Stage 1 = traditional society Stage2 = preconditions for take-off Stage 3 = take-off Stage 4 = drive to maturity Stage 5 = age of mass-consumption |
Wallerstein’s World System Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) | Core countries = most developed countries; Periphery countries = least developed countries Semi-periphery countries = medium levels of development |
Dependency Theory | Countries may depend on other countries for economic survival LDCs depend on MDCs for jobs in primary and secondary employment, while MDCs depend on LDCs to provide low-cost items such as crops and manufactured goods |
Commodity Dependence | Some countries are too dependent on the sale of commodities (raw materials or agricultural goods) a country whose total exports include 60% or more of commodities are considered “commodity dependent” |
Complementarity: engaging in trade can benefit all parties involved
Commodity chains include the activities and processes involved in producing a product
Attaining raw materials, manufacturing/assembling/processing, distribution of final goods, retail sales at market
Migration allows for increasingly diverse cities
Colonial cities saw increasing diversity and high inequality
Post-WWII decolonization, British and French colonies could be granted citizenship
Cape Town was diverse but still segregated under apartheid
Subaltern is an economically and politically disadvantaged population
Acadians were French speakers in Nova Scotia who were expelled by the British and resettled in New Orleans
French influence in Cajun culture
De jure segregation includes official laws and rules for racial segregation
De facto segregation is based on historical and social realities
Prejudice, redlining, racially restrictive covenants
Because of segregation, ethnic enclaves formed
Redlining is the practice of limiting minorities from living in certain neighborhoods
Restrictive covenants were used to prevent minorities from buying homes in certain neighborhoods
Limited home sales to different groups
The mixing of different cultures brings diversity in language, food, customs
New York and London have distinct slang and accents
Many cities in the developing world remain hostile towards women in politics and activism
Sexual harassment, physical intimidation, institutional discrimination
Gentrification is the refurbishment and development of a poorer urban area with the intent to make the area desirable, increasing real estate prices and cost of living
Flippers buy real estate to renovate and resell at higher prices
Section 8 (US Dept of Housing and Urban Development) provides rental assistance vouchers to low-income families
Utilities like water, gas, and electricity are the government/city’s responsibility to maintain for its residents
Water in Flint, MI has been contaminated with lead, waste, and other chemicals since 2014
Brazilian police did not enforce or patrol favelas due to crime
Property taxes are annual taxes paid by owners of private structures
Rent control involves the municipal government setting limits on how much private landlords can charge for rentals
Mixed-use buildings are areas and buildings with a combination of commercial and residential infrastructure
