Epistemology

Primary qualities

Properties of any objects that exist mind independently of any observer e.g size and shape

Secondary qualities

Properties of an object that exist mind dependently and depend on a perceiver’s perception

Indirect realist theory

• A philosophical theory about perception

• It suggests that we do not perceive the external world directly

• We instead experience it through mental representations or sense data created by our minds

Sense data

Refers to the immediate objects of perception that are mind dependent and exist within our consciousness

‘Hands in the bowl of water’ example

• You have three bowls of water -one is filled with lukewarm water, the other one with cold and the third one with hot water

• You place one hand in the hot and the other hand in the cold water and after a while you place both hands into the bowl of lukewarm water

• The hand in the hot water will perceive the lukewarm as cold and the cold hand will perceive the lukewarm water as hot

• This example shows that our sensory experiences are relative

‘Blind man’ example

This example involves a man being born blind who cannot comprehend concepts like light or colour because he has no sensory experiences of them

Relational properties

Characteristics of an object or entity that depend on its relationship with other objects or entities

Indirect realists

They do not believe that we perceive the external world directly. Instead they argue that our perception is mediated by mental representations or sense data

Direct realists

They believe that we do perceive the external world directly, without any intermediaries like sense data or mental representations

Mind independently

To perceive an object mind independently it means to experience or understand objects and properties as they exist independently of any observer’s mind or perception

Mind dependently

This means that the objects existence or properties rely on the observer’s perception or mental faculties

Scepticism

The attitude of questioning or doubting knowledge claims

Indubitable

When something it is indubitable, it means you cannot doubt it and there is not a single fault in it

Perceptual variation argument

It challenges direct realism by highlighting how our perception of an object can vary depending on the conditions under which it is observed

Direct realism

Perceiving the world directly as it is

Indirect realism

The belief that our perception is mediated by mental representations or sense data

Mediated

Refers to something that is experienced or understood indirectly

Unmediated

Refers to something that is experienced or understood directly

Idealism

• Emphasises the primacy of ideas, consciousness or mental constructs

What does a priori mean?

Knowledge gained independent of experience

What does a posteriori mean?

Knowledge that is gained with experience

What is rational intuition?

You can discover something to be true just by thinking about it

What is deduction?

It’s a form of reasoning that states that if the premises are true then the conclusion must also be true

What are clear ideas?

When we are able to think about an idea fully with all the attention of our minds

What are distinct ideas?

If the idea is clear and it is not defined in terms of anything else; it is something in and of itself

What is the trademark argument?

• Descartes came up with this argument as there was no other logical explanation for why he was having certain thoughts

• This argument argues for the existence of god

What is the causal adequacy principle?

The cause of anything must be equal to its effect

What does Hume say about causation?

• Hume believes that to know causes you need to experience it and then you gain knowledge from it

• Hume says that you infer causation through experiencing it over and over again

What is an argument against CAP?

• Evolution is an argument against as it may be a very slow process but we have been caused by many small changes

What empirical evidence is there against CAP?

Matchsticks and fires are good concept examples to use against CAP

How does an empiricist explain god?

• God is just a being with all of the same attributes as a human, but ‘extended beyond all limits’

• We get ideas like the idea of god from experiencing them from other humans then we augment them in our imagination

How does Descartes argue back from Hume’s response about CAP?

• Descartes argued that to have the concept of ‘not- finite’ or ‘imperfect’ requires the idea of ‘perfect’ to negotiate

• But we don’t know we are imperfect unless we have the idea of perfect, which we are not perfect

What is Meno’s slave?

• This analogy is about a slave that is told to solve geometry problems

• The idea of the analogy is to say that if we know something then there is no need to learn it

• And if we don’t know something then we don’t know we have to learn it

Is there a correspondence between what we experience and the nature of the world?

When we experience an object by perceiving it, this corresponds with the nature of the world

• This is because we are experiencing perceiving this object on this very earth and in this life

Explain John Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities

• Primary qualities for Locke are qualities that you know an object possesses just by looking at it

• Secondary qualities are qualities that you know an object has when you feel it or smell it

• An example could be the texture of an object

What does John Locke say about primary qualities?

• He says that primary qualities are qualities that exist independently of our perception

• To him, they are inherent attributes to physical objects

• Primary qualities are real and objective meaning that our senses or perceptions do not alter the primary qualities of an object

Lock gives two views on secondary qualities and how they are perceived, what are they?

• Locke believed that secondary qualities are not inherent in objects themselves but are powers or abilities of objects to produce certain sensations in observers

• Secondary qualities exist only in the mind of the perceiver and do not exist as physical properties in the object itself

What does the ‘hands in the bowl of water’ illustrate about the nature of secondary qualities?

This example demonstrates how our sensory experiences can vary depending on prior conditions, highlighting the subjective and relative nature of perception

This shows us that the nature of secondary qualities can be changed or affected easily because of prior conditions

How does the primary and secondary distinction support the indirect realist theory?

• To perceive secondary qualities and primary qualities, they both require the perceivers’ sensory faculties

How does viewing secondary qualities as relational properties support direct realists?

Viewing secondary qualities as relational properties can lend support to direct realism

• This is because it emphasises the direct connection between perceivers and the external world through sensory interaction

How do direct realists explain secondary qualities?

Direct realists explain secondary qualities by interpreting them as real aspects of the external world arising from the interaction between objects and perceives

• They argue that secondary qualities like colour and taste are directly perceived and not mental constructs

Using the blind man example, explain how secondary qualities have to be mind dependent

• To have a mind depends object, means to refer to this object to have to rely on the existence or activity of a mind to exist or to be true

• Secondary qualities rely on a mind and your senses to know what secondary qualities an object possesses

What does Berkeley say about secondary qualities and objects?

• He believed that secondary qualities exist only in the mind

• They are not inherent to objects themselves

How does Berkeley use dialogue between Hylas and Philonus to set out his argument on perception?

• By using key points such as when Philonus (who is arguing for Berkeley) argues that qualities such as colour and taste exist only in the mind

• He demonstrates this by showing that these qualities vary depending on the observers’ perception

How does Berkeley’s argument from perceptual variation lead him to say that secondary qualities are appearances and not properties of physical objects?

• properties of physical objects don’t exist just in the mind alone, otherwise that wouldn’t go with his argument from perceptual variation

• To say that they are appearances projected from the mind go with his argument of perceptual variation