Psych/Soc MCAT

Social Facilitation

The phenomenon whereby people perform tasks better in group settings due to higher psychological arousal.

Mass Hysteria

irrational fear of a perceived threat, verging on the point of a collective delusion

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Describes the relationship between psychological arousal and performance as U-shaped for complex tasks, indicating the best performance at moderate arousal.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Deindividuation

A psychological state characterized by a loss of self-awareness in groups, often due to high psychological arousal.

Group Polarization

A process where group discussions lead to decisions that are more extreme than the initial attitudes of the individual group members.

Groupthink

A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Conformity

The change in behavior, beliefs, or thinking that aligns with the perspectives of others.

Compliance

The act of responding favorably to a request made by someone with no power to enforce it.

Anomie

A social condition in which normative control is weak or absent, leading to a mismatch between societal norms and individual responses.

Differential Association Theory

A perspective that argues deviance is learned through interactions with others.

Strain Theory

Theory which posits that societal pressure to achieve accepted goals can lead individuals to engage in deviant behavior when they lack legitimate means.

Riots

 spontaneous episodes of civil disorder normally targeted against an established institution or authority figure

Social Constructionism

is a theory that posits that our understanding of reality and knowledge are not inherent or objectively true, but are created and maintained through social interactions and shared cultural meaning

Symbolic Interactionism

is a sociological framework that focuses on the meanings individuals derive from social interactions and the symbols they use to communicate those meanings.

1) humans are social beings created through interaction with others and symbols

2) humans take an active, thinking role in defining their present situations and do not interact with the environment directly

3) humans have agency over their goals but in order to communicate they must learn the common symbolic language of a society

Functionalism

a theory that posits that views society as a complex, stable system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order

Manifest Functions

the recognized and intended consequences of a social institution (ex. education is intended to transmit knowledge and skills)

Latent Functions

the unrecognized and unintended consequences of a social institution (education matches students into marriage partners or building social networks)

Conflict Theory

a macro-level perspective that sees society an an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change. Also states that social order is a temporary state maintained by the dominance of certain groups over others

Agents of Socialization

Key influences on socialization including family, education, peers, media, and workplace.

Fads

Behaviors, styles, or trends that gain popularity quickly but fade away just as fast.

Oxytocin

A hormone that plays a crucial role in social bonding and childbirth, helping to coordinate behaviors related to affection and mood.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

suggests that physiological arousal precedes and causes the emotional experience

Cannon-Bard Theory

Theory positing that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously in response to a stimulus.

Schachter-Singer Theory

Theory suggesting that emotional experience is based on physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

theory of emotion suggesting that the appraisal determines both the physiological response and the emotional response

Retrospective Cohort Study

An observational study that looks back at a cohort to determine outcomes in the past.

Quasi-experimental Design

Research design that attempts to establish causal relationships without random assignment of participants.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that help relieve pain and induce feelings of pleasure or euphoria.

Heritability

A measure of how much of the variation in a trait can be attributed to genetic factors.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to think abstractly, reason, and solve novel problems, independent of acquired knowledge.

Thyroxine

A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland that regulates metabolism.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation and communication between nerve cells.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system.

Thalamus

A brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information.

Cerebellum

main brain structure of coordination, movement, and posture

Medulla Oblongata

controls automatic functions for life such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Reticular Formation

the brain structure for arousal and alertness and consciousness

Hypothalamus

the brain structure controlling homeostasis and drives (the 4 Fs)

Parietal Lobe

part of the cortex containing the somatosensory cortex and detects spatial sense

Temporal Lobe

part of the cortex that contains the auditory cortex and houses the hippocampus and amygdala

Limbic System

A set of brain structures crucial for emotion regulation and memory formation.

Frontal Lobe

The brain region responsible for higher executive functions such as decision-making and impulse control.

Electroencephalograms

measure brain activity through electrodes placed on the scalp and measure electrical activity in the brain 

CT scan

x-rays in 360˚ and assemble the pictures in 3D 

MRI

uses magnetic fields to make pictures of structures in the body

Positron Emission Tomography

works by radiolabeling glucose with 18-F which emits positrons as it decays. The detector analyzes where the decay occurs → where more decay occurs are those were more glucose is being metabolized → more neuronal activity 

fMRI

relies on differences in magnetic properties between oxygenated (arterial) and deoxygenated (venous) hemoglobin to measure blood flow to predominantly measure brain blood flow  

Mediating variable

A variable that accounts for the relationship between the IV and the DV. It is the intermediate step in the causal pathway that answers how or why.

Moderating variable

A variable that alters the nature of the relationship between the IV and the DV. It specifies the conditions under which the effect occurs and influences the strength or direction of the relationship

Negativity Bias

The psychological phenomenon by which humans give more psychological weight to negative experiences

Self-serving bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors (dispositional or personal traits) and negative outcomes to external factors (situational variables)

Social desirability bias

The tendency of survey respondents and research participants to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. It leads to over-reporting socially desirable behaviors (e.g., exercising, donating) and under-reporting undesirable behaviors

Id

The primitive, instinctual part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification of needs, wishes, and urges (e.g., hunger, sex, aggression)

Ego

The rational part that mediates between the unrealistic Id and the external reality. It seeks to satisfy the Id’s demands in realistic and socially appropriate ways

Superego

Represents the conscience and moral standards internalized from parents and society. It provides guidelines for making judgments

Formal positive sanction

Official Reward for following a significant rule (ex. getting a diploma or degree)

Formal Negative sanction

Official Punishment for breaking a rule or law. (ex. being expelled from school)

Informal Positive Sanction

Unofficial Reward (Spontaneous recognition) for following a norm. (ex. getting a pat on the back; receiving a compliment from a stranger)

Informal negative sanction

unofficial punishment for breaking a norm (ex. Being ignored or ostracized by friends; a frown or dirty look from a peer.)

iconic memory

a visual component of sensory memory in which a precise, momentary mental image of a visual stimulus is registered after it has been seen. Lasts no longer than 1 second

Echoic memory

the audio component of sensory memory that holds a brief trace or “echo” of an auditory stimulus after it has been heard typically lasting around 3-4 seconds

Working memory

a fundamental cognitive system that is responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed to execute complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension

Hidden curriculum

refers to implicit or unspoken values that are taught in school. Parts of it are often conveyed unconsciously by teachers and administrators

Rosy retrospection

a phenomenon in which an individual remembers the past as having been better than it truly was

Zeigarnik effect

the observation that uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones

Resource Model of Attention

the ideal that the total amount of attention available at any given time is fixed and finite. But, the limited resource can be allocated across different activities or demands for the cost of more time spent.

Intragenerational mobility

refers to a change in the social mobility of an individual throughout the course of his/her life

theory of social solidarity

the theory that as societies grow and industrialize, they move toward organic solidarity where people are held together not by their similarities, but by their differences (division of labor instead of same tasks)

division of responsibility

refers to the clear boundaries of authority—deciding who has the final say and who is accountable for the outcome of a specific area.

Not about dividing the labor, but rather, it is about who owns which decision

Ego defense

an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. 

Defensive attribution hypothesis

a social psychological theory that explains how we assign blame for accidents or misfortunes to protect ourselves from the fear that something similar could happen to us

To explain: When we see someone else experience a mishap (like a car crash or a health crisis), it reminds us that the world is unpredictable. To manage the anxiety that we might be next, our brains look for reasons to blame the victim’s choices rather than "bad luck."

church

a large, well-established, bureaucratic organization that is well-integrated into the larger society

sect

smaller religious group that has broken away from an established church to "return" to what it perceives as the original, pure version of the faith.

These are often in tension with the larger society

cults

is a small, secretive group that forms around a novel set of beliefs or a charismatic leader. At "great odds" with mainstream culture; often viewed with suspicion.

confounding variable

a variable that influences both the dependent and the independent variable, weakening their association

Cultural assimilation

the process by which one culture resembles another

admiration stereotypes

groups we view with pride and respect. We see them as "friends" who are also very capable.

paternalistic stereotype

These are groups we like but don't necessarily respect in terms of their "capability" or power. We see them as non-threatening and "warm," but "incompetent." —> characterized as condescending

Contemptuous stereotypes

These are groups viewed with the most hostility. We see them as "foes" who also lack status or power. —> characterized by disdain

envious stereotypes

groups we respect for their ability but dislike personally. We see them as highly capable "foes" who are competing with us for resources. —> characterized by jealousy and bitterness

cohort study

a type of study that begins with a set group of healthy individuals, then tracks changes in their health over time with the end goal of determining risk factors for specific diseases

attachment theory

a psychological framework that explains how infants form emotional bonds with their primary caregivers and how these early bonds shape social and emotional development throughout life

pre-attachment

The first stage of Bowlby’s Four Stages of attachments in which the infant (birth-6 weeks) doesn't distinguish between people yet. They use crying/smiling to get anyone's attention

Attachment-in-the-making

The second stage of Bowlby’s Four Stages of attachments in which the infant (6 weeks - 8 months) starts to prefer familiar caregivers but does not yet protest when the primary caregiver leaves

Clear-cut attachment

The third stage of Bowlby’s Four Stages of attachments in which the the bond is established (8 months - 2 years). Separation anxiety peaks here; the child gets very upset when the caregiver leaves.

Reciprocal Relationship

The child (2+ years) understands that the caregiver has their own goals and will eventually return, leading to decreased separation anxiety

Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles

Mary Ainsworth used the Strange Situation—a test where a mother leaves her child alone with a stranger and then returns—to categorize four attachment styles.

Secure Attachment

an attachment style in which the child explores freely while mom is there, is distressed when she leaves, and is quickly soothed when she returns

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

an attachment style in which the child doesn't care if mom is there or not. They show no distress when she leaves and ignore/avoid her when she returns

Resistant Attachment

an attachment style in which the child is very clingy and distressed when mom leaves. When she returns, they are resentful or angry—they might seek comfort but then push her away

Disorganized attachment

an attachment style in which a child shows "bizarre" or erratic behaviors (freezing, rocking, or approaching the caregiver with their back turned).

primary socialization

involves individuals learning the basic rules and norms of their culture

secondary socialization

refers to the process of learning norms and behaviors which are appropriate to a smaller group within a larger society (an academic or formal setting like a high school is one example)

anticipatory socialization

when individuals attempt to predict or rehearse appropriate behavior for future situations.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

They desperately want social interaction and closeness, but they avoid it because they are terrified of being mocked or disliked —> Extreme shyness, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

an anxiety-related disorder characterized by a cycle of obsessions and compulsions and where the person usually knows their behavior is irrational and hates that they have to do it