Criminology- Unit 2 revision

Social definition of crime

People see crime as a wrong against the community. If society says that an act is a crime then it becomes one.

Legal definition of crime

An act, or omission that is forbidden and punishable by law.

Actus reus

Latin for guilty act.

Mens rea

Latin for guilty mind.

Examples of crimes

Fatal offences(murder/manslaughter), non-fatal offences(assault), property offences(burglary), sexual offences(rape/sexual assault), public offences(rioting/harassment), road traffic offences(drink driving) and drug offences(importing/exporting).

What crimes differ from culture to culture?

Adultery, honour crimes, FGM, homosexuality, arranged marriage.

What crimes differ over time?

Smoking, homosexuality, drink driving, abortion and the death penalty.

What crimes differ from place to place?

Homosexuality, abortion, marijuana and capital punishment.

What is the age of responsibility?

The minimum age that a child can be prosecuted and punished by law for an offence. E.g. UK-10, Canada-12, China-16, Colombia-18, Pakistan-7.

What are situational factors?

Factors within an environment that can change an outcome. E.g. incident circumstances, seriousness of crime, harm done, presence of a weapon,

What is an example of minority rights?

The motorcycle helmet law(1973), no application to turban wearing Sikhs.

What is the age of consent?

Someone over the age of 18 in a specified 'position of trust' (teacher) cannot have sex with a student due to the Sexual offences act 2000.

What are examples of defences?

The Homicide Act (1957). 1. Diminished responsibility- unbalanced mental state, 2. loss of control- low awareness, 3.automatism- not fully conscious.

What is deviance?

Behaviour that goes against the accepted standards (social norms).

What are the 4 forms of deviance?

Societal, concealed, situational and collective deviance.

What is societal deviance?

An act which most of society would agree is not classed as part of normal behaviour. E.g. swearing, shouting, spitting.

What is concealed deviance?

An act which no one sees, something which a person can keep hidden away, but isn't considered a part of societies set of norms. E.g. bed wetting, abortion, porn addiction, hoarding and domestic abuse.

What is situational deviance?

An act which is only considered deviant in the culture you are in at the time and may not be considered deviant in every society. E.g. sex before marriage, FGM, girls going to school, homosexuality.

What is collective deviance?

Deviance shared by a group of people who don't conform to the considered social norms, however follow a set of norms they have created within their own subculture. E.g. drugs, underage drinking, protest, gangs.

What is the difference between crime and deviance?

Crime is an act that breaks the written rules of the law, so you would receive formal sanctions. Whereas, deviance is an act that breaks societies norms and values.

What are the types of formal sanctions?

Cautions, penalty notices, custodial sentences, fines, conditional cautions, discharges, community sentences.

What are norms?

Socially acceptable behaviours. E.g. eating with cutlery.

What are values?

General guidelines for how we should live our lives/ what we should strive for. Commonly shared by society (value consensus). E.g. having a house, or a car.

What are the genetic theories of crime?

Jacobs XYY, Mednicks adoption study, Christiansen and Langes twin studies.

Describe Jacobs XYY theory

Men have an extra Y chromosome(47). This leads to higher testosterone levels, higher aggression, taller (super male).This leads to increased intimidation and capability to abuse and overpower victims. E.g. GBH. They also lack empathy so don't care what they've done. E.g. murder, torture.

Evaluate Jacobs XYY theory

-Women also commit crime, not a useful/ valid explanation. E.g. Rose West and Lucy Letby.

-There are men in prison who don't have XYY, so there must be another explanation for criminal behaviour (SLT).

-Many men in prison who have XYY tend to commit non violent crimes, decreases usefulness/ validity of theory.

+Real life examples of XYY such as John Wayne Gacy, he committed violent unempathetic crimes. E.g. torture.

+Jacobs found that a significant number of men in prison have XYY chromosomes. Increases the validity.

Describe twin studies

There are 2 types of twins: monozygotic (identical and share 100% DNA) and dizygotic (non-identical and share 50% DNA). Similarities in characters are measured using a concordance rate (likelihood if one twin has a trait so will the other twin). If higher amongst MZ than DZ it suggests criminality is nature (genetics, innate). If low, between MZ twins, we can assume that criminal behaviour is a result of nature (environmental factors).

Describe Langes twin study

Lange (1929) studied 30 German pairs of twins who were the same sex. 17 DZ twins and 13 MZ twins. At least one of each twin were known to have committed a crime.

Lange found that both twins in 10/13 MZ twins were criminals, compared to 2/17 DZ twins. Concordance rate was 77% for MZ twins compared to 12% of DZ twins.

Describe Christiansen's twin study

In 1977 he evaluated criminal behaviour of 3,586 twin pairs born in Denmark between 1881 and 1910. The chance of a twin engaging in criminal behaviour when the other twin was criminal was 50% among MZ twins and 20% among DZ twins.

Evaluation of twin studies

+Research support from Christiansen and Lange, increases the validity.

+Christiansen used a large sample (3,856) represents the wider population.

-Concordance rate isn't 100%. Low validity, environment has an influence.

-Lange used a small scale study (30 twin pairs) not representative of all twins. Reduces the validity.

Describe adoption studies

Mednicks aim was to investigate the nature vs nurture debate of criminal behaviour. He studied 1,400 adopted males from Denmark born between 1924-1947, who were criminals had their records compared with their biological and adoptive parents. They found that if both parents had been convicted, the adoptee was twice as likely to be criminal than non criminal parents (24.5% vs 13.5%). 20% of adoptees who had innocent adoptive parents but criminal biological parents were criminal.

Evaluate adoption studies

-Children who are adopted tend to be placed in environments similar to biological parents. Harder to separate the differences from genetics/ environment. This reduces the validity of theory.

-Information about biological family may be hard to find, inaccurate and skewed results.

-Some children are adopted at a later age, early life experiences may cause criminal behaviour. Taught primary socialisation. Previous experiences may interfere.

What are the two physiological theories?

Lombroso facial features and Sheldon's somatotype theory.

Describe Lombroso's facial features study

Criminality is inheritable(innate). He researched 343 dead criminals and 3,839 living criminal. 40% of the criminals accounted for the criminal characteristics. These facial features include: big nose, fleshy lips, strong jaw/ cheek bones, low and sloping forehead.

Evaluate Lombroso's facial features study

+Aided offender profiling, establish what offenders may look like.

+Large study sample was used, increases generalisability.

-Only tested on male criminals, not applicable to female criminals, decreases the validity.

-No control variable (non criminals with criminal facial features).

-Not all criminals have these features, non-criminals have criminal facial features. Not always applicable.

-Scientific racism, features commonly African descent.

-If facial features were the only cause of criminality the findings would have been 100% not 40%.

Describe Sheldon's somatotype theory

Criminal behaviour is linked to physical form. He examined photos of 4,000 men, rating them on body type and delinquency (1=low, 7=high). There are 3 body types: ectomorph(skinny and weak), endomorph(lazy and fat) and mesomorph(muscular and strong).The correlation study believes that mesomorphs are stereotypically the criminals, they are thrill seekers and energetic. As they are muscular and strong they are capable to overpower victims. Stereotypically seen as more capable.

Evaluate Sheldon's somatotype theory

+Large sample, increased generalisability.

+Quantitative data is easier to analyse and compare.

-Quantitative date lacks detail.

-Only tested on males, not applicable to females).

-Unethical stereotypes may lead to prejudice.

-Somatotypes change over time/ not fixed.

-Study focuses on links, not cause and effects.

-Ectomorphs and endomorphs commit crimes too.

What are the three individualistic theories?

Bandura's social learning theory, Eysenck's personality theory and Freud's psychodynamic theory.

Describe Bandura's social learning theory

We learn behaviour through role models(parents), we observe and imitate role models in order to learn criminal behaviour. We learn this behaviour through a mediational process: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Vicarious reinforcement is where you are motivated to copy criminal behaviour because we see someone else being rewarded and we also want that reward. E.g. fraud to gain money and could be thrilling.

Evaluate Bandura's social learning theory

+Studied both girls and boys behaviour(representative sample).

+Controlled lab environment, highly scientific + reliable.

+Walmsley et al found that a 1/3 of UK prisoners also had a family member in prison.

-72 children aged between 3-5 took part, small sample.

-Ignores the biological reasons for crime, not all crimes are learnt. Reduces the validity.

-Just because you see a crime doesn't mean you will imitate this behaviour.

Describe Eysenck's personality theory

He carried out a questionnaire on 700 soldiers who were being treated for various issues. He worked out that certain personality types are more likely to commit crimes due to certain traits. He suggests that people who are psychotic, extroverted and neurotic. So, they seek external stimulation, show aggressive and antisocial behaviours and have low emotional stability. Those who score highly as an extrovert and neurotic are more likely to commit crime. E.g. Jeffrey Dahmer and Ian Huntley scored highly on PEN.

Evaluate Eysenck's personality theory

+Large sample size of 700 soldiers, generalisable.

+Questionnaire, used closed questions are easy to compare and create trends.

-Introverts commit crimes too, reduces the validity.

-Doesn't mention the biological reasons for criminality.

-Tested on soldiers being treated for neurotic disorders, different thought process to the rest of the population.

Describe Freud psychodynamic theory

He believed that the unconscious mind was a factor of criminal behaviour. All behaviour is linked back to events in childhood. The unconscious mind holds thoughts and feelings you may not be aware of. The mind is split into 3 parts: ego which is the conscious and realistic part of personality, it is rational and sensible (mediator). Superego informs the ego of moral considerations, helps curb the ID of unacceptable desires, focusing on moral integrity, promoting perfectionist behaviour. The ID is the selfish and animalistic desires (wants and needs) the primitive and basic fully conscious part of the mind, the pleasure principle focuses on basic instincts (food, water, shelter, and libido- sexual desires.

What is the psychodynamic explanation of crime?

Weak super ego- weak morals driven by ID, superego gives into the strong ID. May lead to sexual crimes such as rape and sexual assault.

Excessively strong superego (1)- leads to self hating when a crime is committed, person continues to commit crimes in order to try and get caught to deal with guilt (speeding).

Excessively strong superego (2)- superego is too strict, stopping all impulses from ID being satisfied. This is built up over time, eventually expressed violently (murder, GBH, abuse).

Evaluate Freud's psychodynamic theory

+Can help try and support people with traumatic childhoods before they turn to crime.

+Shows the importance of parent and child relationships as an influence on offending.

-Extremely time consuming and expensive process of collecting information and then analysing data (unpractical).

-Ppts may lie or misremember their childhood. E.g. may be in denial and want a better childhood than they did.

-Theory is incapable of being proved wrong. Therefore, it is unscientific and invalid.

What are the 2 biological policies?

Eugenics and death penalty.

Describe the eugenics policy

Involves sterilising the criminal population by injection/tablet so they can't reproduce and pass on criminal genes. Supported by Osborne and West (1970s) found that 40% of boys with criminal records had fathers with criminal records. It is based on a set of beliefs that some people deemed unfit to reproduce are sterilised.

Evaluate the eugenics policy

-Extreme moral and ethic considerations involved. Creates a power imbalance, difficult to decide who should be sterilised. Reduces usefulness/ subjective.

-Genes aren't the only cause of crime, altered by our environment and by how someone is nurtured.

+Can help reduce the criminal population.

Describe the death penalty policy

Sentencing serious criminals to death by execution. This is done by the electric chair, and lethal injection. However, people used to be burnt to death. hung, disembowelment and drowned. Until 1965, the main form of punishment in the UK was to be hung, drawn and quartered. The UK no longer practices the death penalty.

Evaluate the death penalty

+It is a practical and quick procedure, cheaper than keeping them in prison or rehabilitating prisoners.

-Not a deterrent, people often kill in the spur of the moment, normally not planned out. Reduces effectiveness of the policy.

-After the temporary abolishment in 1965, murder rates did not increase. Shows that death penalty is not an effective policy in reducing crime.

What are the 2 individualistic policies?

Behaviour modification and psychoanalysis.

Describe token economies (Bandura SLT)

This policy uses techniques to extinguish and modify behaviour that is undesirable and focus on the desirable behaviours. There are 2 types of reinforcers: primary and secondary. Primary: satisfies a basic biological need (food, drink and warmth). Secondary: a reward that is collected and traded in for a primary reward. Such as longer phone call homes and extra food.

Evaluate token economies

+May increase desirable behaviour, helping control behaviour in prisons.

+Easily implemented cheap technique on a bigger scale can reduce crime.

-Other cell mates may get annoyed seeing other people get rewards they want (lead to physical competition).

-Only controls behaviour within prison, doesn't control prisoners behaviour outside of prison.

Describe the psychoanalysis policy (Freud)

Sleep/ dream analysis to help discover the hidden unconscious mind of the ID, to find out the reasons for committing crime. They are criminal talks to a trained facilitator about their dreams to help understand them to gain an understanding.

Evaluate psychoanalysis

+Could help reduce rates of crimes by discovering reasons.

-May not be fully accurate, dependent on a trained facilitator.

What are the 4 sociological policies?

Prison, zero tolerance, restorative justice and CCTV.

Describe the prison policy (right realism)

An offender is placed into prison and denied civil liberties, such as freedom and privileges for a period of time determined by the court. The aim of prison is to punish an offender, rehabilitate and reform. Helping protect society, reducing chance of any further crime.

Evaluate the prison policy

+Protects society from violent and dangerous criminals.

+Acts as a deterrent for crime (boundary maintenance).

+Creates a sense of justice for victim, more likely to trust the criminal justice system.

-Overcrowding in prisons, expensive (£40,000 annually per prisoner in the UK).

-Prisoners may learn new criminal behaviour from other criminals (social learning theory).

-Doesn't always rehabilitate (25% reoffending rate).

Describe zero tolerance policy (right realism)

Demands that all crimes are acted on no matter how trivial. Pioneered in NYC, based on the broken window theory. Run down areas with high crime rates, leads to devaluing of an area, crime then becomes normalised in the area, leads to people not reporting crime. ZTP is where all crime must be acted upon to prevent further crime. E.g. London riots, stealing a water bottle would get you a 6 month prison sentence.

Evaluate zero tolerance prison

+Crime fell after ZTP was introduced in NY by 39%.

+Reduce reoffending rates of criminals.

-ZTP fails to tackle structural causes of crime (inequality).

-Focuses too heavily on low-level street crime, ignoring crimes of the powerful (white collar crimes).

-Can be viewed as unethical as it is harsh, may lead to rioting and decline of trust in the police and CJS.

Describe restorative justice (left realism)

A voluntary process with a trained facilitator. The offender meets and communicates with victim they harmed. Helps the offender realise their actions and the effects it has had on others. Those harmed can describe how they feel and ask questions for relief. It is conducted in an informal and neutral environment, where the people involved feel safe. Helps build a bond between the victim and the offender.

Evaluate restorative justice

+Gives victim a sense of closure, therefore more likely to trust the CJS and more likely to report crimes in future.

+85% victim satisfaction rate, 14% reduction in frequency of crime.

+Voluntary process, doesn't pressure victim. Increases the effectiveness.

-Trained facilitator, costly and time consuming process.

-Not an effective process for criminals or victims who do not volunteer for restorative justice.

-Can be unethical, bringing up traumatising events.

Describe CCTV policy (functionalism)

Stands for Closed Circuit Television. Useful for abduction (Jamie Bulger case), theft, property offences and dangerous driving. CCTV is often used by the police, used in evidence, helping identify possible offenders, can act as a deterrent to crime. CCTV is useful for cross-checking potential suspects statements, helping create a timeline of events.

Evaluate CCTV policy

+Can provide compelling evidence in court.

+Shows the nature and severity of crimes and identify suspects and witnesses.

+Has been used to solve the London riots (150 hours).

-CCTV tends to only be in public cases/fixed camera.

-Can get broken and need replacing, may lose footage.

-May have poor quality if cheap, less likely to identify.

What are the 5 sociological theories?

Functionalism, interactionism, Marxism, left realism and right realism.

Describe Durkheim's functionalist theory

Durkheim suggested that crime is inevitable as not every member of society can be equally committed to the values and beliefs of society. Crime is functional, only dysfunctional when it is too high (anomie). In society we all have a 'value consensus'. Everyone agrees on what is right and wrong and have similar goals creating social order. Crime strengthens social cohesion and maintains boundaries. E.g. Shannon Matthews, members of the community were united in expressing their views of crime with organised searches, marches and displays of boundary maintenance.

Describe Merton's strain theory

People turn to crime when they cannot achieve their goals legitimately. If you experience anomie, crime or deviance becomes illegitimate means of achieving societies socially accepted goals. E.g. drug dealing and burglary. People innovate when the individual shares the cultural goal of society but reaches the goal illegitimately . Society encourages this response by under emphasising the importance of legitimate means.

Evaluate functionalism

-It doesn't explain all crime, the working class experience the most strain, yet they don't all deviate. Reduces validity and usefulness of theory for explaining crime.

-The rich commit crime and deviance too, making the theory unapplicable and unreliable. Based on W/C stereotypes as rich already have the cultural goal.

Describe Marxist theory

Crime is inevitable in a capitalist society. Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership and control of them means of production and their operation for profit. The theory assumes that a disadvantaged social class is the primary cause of crime and criminal behaviour begins in youth. Crime is largely due to unfavourable conditions in the community such as unemployment and single-parent families. Crime is used by the bourgeoisie as a means of social control. If someone doesn't conform the they will be punished. Institutions such as the police, CJS, family and school encourage you to conform. They argue that white collar crime is ignored, whilst street crime is seen as more serious. Proletariat are more heavily policed which raises the chance of them being caught.

Evaluate Marxism

+Acknowledges crime exists (theft, white collar and abuse).

+Useful, highlights how proletariats are over policed.

-Lacks validity, not all capitalist countries have high crime rates in the working class (Switzerland).

-Not useful, doesn't explain crimes that have been committed for no financial gain (speeding, arson) this reduces the applicability.

Describe interactionism (labelling)

Becker wasn't interested in the causes of crime but how the individual becomes defined as criminal. Institutions such as the police, courts and school label certain acts that are deviant and criminal (therefore all crime is a social construction and is subjective). An act only becomes deviant when others perceive it to be deviant. Edwin Lemert refers to 2 types of deviance. Primary deviance isn't publicly labelled, secondary deviance is when behaviour is labelled and has societal attention. Once the person has been labelled as deviant, they view themselves as deviant. This then becomes their master status and can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy (internalise and act like the label). They may join a deviant subculture. The media can 'demonise' people who have been socially labelled as deviant. This could create moral panics in society which alienates the person even further.

Evaluate interationism

+Shows law is often enforced in a discriminatory ways. Prevent this by having police education training.

-Doesn't explain the motivation behind crimes in the first place. Reducing validity and useful, cant reduce crime.

-Labelling doesn't always lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy (halo effect, going against the label).