Exam 1 Patho Study Guide Vocabulary (Ch. 1,2,5,6,20,21)

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts from chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 20, and 21, including homeostasis, disease processes, cellular adaptations, fluids/electrolytes, acid-base balance, inflammation, infection, and neoplasia.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite external changes.

Disease

Deviation from the normal state of homeostasis.

Pathogenesis

Development or origin of a disease.

Onset

Beginning of disease symptoms; can be sudden or gradual.

Acute disease

Short-term, rapid-developing disease with often high fever and severe symptoms.

Chronic disease

Disease that develops gradually, with mild or intermittent symptoms.

Subclinical state

Pathologic changes present without obvious manifestations.

Latent state

No symptoms or signs evident; may include an incubation period.

Incubation period

Time between exposure and appearance of first signs.

Prodromal period

Early development of disease with nonspecific or absent signs.

Manifestations

Clinical evidence, including signs and symptoms.

Local manifestations

At the site of the problem (e.g., redness, swelling).

Systemic manifestations

General indicators of illness (e.g., fever).

Signs

Objective indicators of disease observed by others.

Symptoms

Subjective feelings reported by the patient.

Lesions

Specific local changes in tissue.

Diagnostic tests

Laboratory tests used to diagnose manifestations and medical history.

Remission

Period during which manifestations subside.

Exacerbation

Worsening of disease severity.

Precipitating factors

Conditions that trigger an acute episode.

Complications

New secondary or additional problems arising from disease.

Therapy

Measures to promote recovery or slow disease progress.

Sequelae

Potential unwanted outcomes following disease.

Convalescence

Period of recovery and return to health.

Prophylaxis

Measures designed to preserve health and prevent disease spread.

Prognosis

Probability or likelihood of recovery or other outcomes.

Morbidity

Disease rates within a group.

Mortality

Relative number of deaths caused by a disease.

Atrophy

Decrease in cell size resulting in reduced tissue mass.

Hypertrophy

Increase in cell size leading to enlarged tissue mass.

Hyperplasia

Increase in the number of cells leading to enlarged tissue mass.

Metaplasia

Replacement of one mature cell type with another mature cell type.

Dysplasia

Cells vary in size and shape within a tissue.

Anaplasia

Undifferentiated cells with variable nuclear/cellular structures; indicates tumor aggressiveness.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; normal in development or injury.

Ischemia

Deficit of oxygen in tissues due to circulatory obstruction.

Necrosis

Death of cells with cellular disintegration; several types exist.

Coagulative necrosis

Protein denaturation preserves tissue architecture; seen in ischemia of organs except brain.

Liquefaction necrosis

Dead cells are digested, often forming a liquid mass (common in brain).

Fat necrosis

Destruction of fat tissue, forming fatty acids.

Caseous necrosis

Cheesy-appearing necrosis, typical of tuberculosis.

Infarction

Area of dead tissue due to oxygen deprivation.

Myocardial infarction

Heart attack; infarcted myocardium forms scar tissue and loses contractile function.

Gangrene

Necrotic tissue infected by bacteria; risk of septic shock.

Edema

Excess fluid accumulation in the interstitial space.

Pitting edema

Edema that leaves a pit when pressed.

Dehydration

Insufficient body fluids from inadequate intake or excessive loss.

Hematocrit

Proportion of red blood cells in blood; rises with dehydration.

Thirst mechanism

Regulated by the hypothalamus in the brain.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Hormone that promotes water reabsorption in kidneys, reducing urine output.

Renal reabsorption sites (distal tubule and collecting duct)

Nephron segments where water and solutes are reabsorbed.

Sodium (Na+)

Major extracellular cation; maintains extracellular fluid volume and drives osmotic pressure.

Hyponatremia

Low serum sodium; causes include sweating, vomiting, diuretics, ADH imbalance.

Hypernatremia

High serum sodium; caused by water deficit or excessive sodium intake.

Potassium (K+)

Major intracellular cation; essential for membrane potential and muscle/nerve function.

Hypokalemia

Low potassium; causes include diarrhea, diuretics, aldosterone excess.

Hyperkalemia

High potassium; causes include renal failure, cell lysis, acidosis.

Calcium (Ca2+)

Ion essential for nerves, muscles, bones; blood clotting; membrane stability.

Hypocalcemia

Low calcium; causes include hyperparathyroidism, malabsorption, low albumin.

Hypercalcemia

High calcium; causes include malignancy, hyperparathyroidism, immobility.

Magnesium (Mg2+)

Important for enzyme function and neuromuscular activity.

Hypomagnesemia

Low magnesium; associated with malnutrition, alcoholism, malabsorption.

Hypermagnesemia

High magnesium; often due to renal failure.

Phosphate (PO4^3-)

Important for metabolism and bone mineralization; buffering.

Hypophosphatemia

Low phosphate; causes include malabsorption, diarrhea, antacids.

Hyperphosphatemia

High phosphate; seen in renal failure or chemotherapy.

Chloride (Cl−)

Major extracellular anion; helps maintain osmotic balance.

Hypochloremia

Low chloride; linked to alkalosis and vomiting.

Hyperchloremia

High chloride; can accompany edema and dehydration.

Respiratory acidosis

pH < 7.35 with CO2 > 45 mmHg; due to hypoventilation (e.g., COPD, overdose).

Respiratory alkalosis

pH > 7.45 with CO2 < 35 mmHg; due to hyperventilation.

Metabolic acidosis

pH < 7.35 with low HCO3−; causes include renal failure, diarrhea, ketoacidosis.

Metabolic alkalosis

pH > 7.45 with high HCO3−; causes include diuresis, vomiting, excessive antacids.

Normal values (acid-base)

pH 7.35-7.45; CO2 35-45 mmHg; HCO3− 22-26 mEq/L.

Buffer systems

Chemical systems that resist pH changes (e.g., bicarbonate, phosphate, protein buffers).

Respiratory compensation

Adjusting ventilation to alter CO2 and pH during acidosis/alkalosis.

Renal compensation

Kidneys adjust acid/base excretion to correct metabolic or respiratory imbalances.

Chapter 21: genotype and phenotype

Genotype: genetic information; Phenotype: expressed traits.

Karyotype

Visual representation of chromosomes arranged by size.

Genotype

Actual genetic information carried by an individual.

Phenotype

Expression of genes; observable characteristics.

Autosomal dominant disorders

Disorders caused by a single mutant allele on an autosome; examples include Huntington disease, Marfan syndrome, polycystic kidney disease, familial hypercholesterolemia.

Autosomal recessive disorders

Disorders requiring two mutant alleles on autosomes; examples include cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease.

X-linked dominant disorders

Dominant gene on the X chromosome (e.g., Fragile X syndrome).

X-linked recessive disorders

Mutant allele on X chromosome; examples include color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia A.

Multifactorial disorders

Disorders due to genetic susceptibility plus environmental factors (e.g., neural tube defects, type 2 diabetes).

Chromosomal disorders

Disorders due to abnormal chromosome number or structure (e.g., Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome).

Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

Three chromosomes at position 21; features include facial characteristics and cognitive impairment.

Turner syndrome (monosomy X)

Only one X chromosome; present in females; typically short stature and lack of ovarian development.

Klinefelter syndrome (polysomy X, XXY)

Presence of an extra X chromosome in males; small testes, reduced fertility.

Fragile X syndrome

X-linked dominant disorder; cognitive impairment and features of autism spectrum.

Amniocentesis

Prenatal diagnostic procedure: sampling amniotic fluid to assess fetal tissue and karyotype.

Punnett square

A diagram used to predict genetic inheritance patterns.

Chapter 5: inflammation

Non-specific response to tissue injury involving redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function.

First line of defense

Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) and chemical barriers (lysozyme, stomach acid) that protect against pathogens.

Lysozyme

Enzyme in tears and saliva that digests bacterial cell walls.

Resident microbiota

Microbes normally residing on body surfaces that help protect against pathogens.

Inflammation mediators

Chemical signals that cause vasodilation, increased permeability, chemotaxis; include cytokines.

Neutrophils and macrophages

Phagocytic white blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens.

Exudates

Fluid and cells that leak from vessels during inflammation; types include serous, fibrinous, purulent, hemorrhagic.