SAS FINALS

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

• human beings are driven by powerful biological urges that must be satisfied.

• formulated his theory of human development from his analyses of the life histories of his emotionally disturbed patients

Three Components of Personality

1. id

2. ego

3. superego

id

• component of personality that’s sole function is to satisfy inborn biological instincts.

• psychoanalytic term for the inborn

  component of the personality that is

  driven by the instincts.

ego

• is the conscious, rational component of personality

• to perceive, learn, remember, and reason

• find realistic means of gratifying the instincts

• psychoanalytic term for the rational component of the personality
  

superego

• develops between the ages of 3 and 6 as children internalize (take on as their own) the moral values and

  standards of their parents

• psychoanalytic term for the component of the personality that consists of one’s internalized moral standards.

Thanatos

Freud’s name for inborn, self-destructive instincts that were said

to characterize all human beings.

Eros

Freud’s name for instincts such as respiration, hunger, and sex that help the individual (and the species) to survive.

Freud’s greatest contribution

“unconscious motivation”

Difference between Freud & Erikson

less emphasis on sexual urges and far more emphasis on cultural influences

Erik’s Psychosocial Theory

emphasizes sociocultural (rather than sexual) determinants

of development and posits a series of eight psychosocial conflicts that people must resolve successfully to display healthy psychological adjustment.

Trust vs Mistrust

• Infants must learn to trust others to care for their basic needs.

• key social agent: primary caregiver or mother

• birth to 1 year

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

• to feed and dress themselves, to look after their own hygiene, and so on.

• failure to achieve this independence may force the child

  to doubt his or her own abilities and feel shameful.

  Parents are the key social agents

• key social agent: parents

• 1 to 3 years

Initiative vs Guilt

• children attempt to act grown up and will try to accept Phallic responsibilities that are beyond their capacity to handle.

• key social agent: family

• 3 to 6 years

Industry vs Inferiority

• this is a period when the child compares himself or herself with peers.

• key social agent: society of peers

• 6 to 12 years

Identity vs Role Confusion

• The adolescent grapples with the question “Who am I?”

• key social agent: society of the peers

• 12 to 20 years

Intimacy vs Isolation

• The primary task at this stage is to form strong friendships and to achieve a sense of love and companionship

• key social agent: lovers, spouse, close friends

• 20-40 years

Generativity vs Stagnation

• adults face the tasks of becoming productive in their work and raising their families or otherwise looking adulthood) after the needs of young people.

• key social agent: spose, children, cultural norms

• 40-65 years

Ego vs Despair

• The older adult will look back at life

• One’s life experiences, particularly social experiences, will determine the outcome of this final life crisis.

• old age

Skinner’s Operant-Learning Theory

• both animals and humans will repeat acts that lead to favorable outcomes and will suppress those that produce unfavorable outcomes.

• Radical Behaviorism

reinforcer

• any consequence of an act that increases the probability that the act will recur.

punisher

• any consequence of an act that suppresses that act and/or decreases the probability that it will recur.

operant learning

• a form of learning in which voluntary acts (or operants) become either more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce.

• directions in which we develop depend very critically on external stimuli

Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning Theory

• humans are cognitive beings—active information

• observational learning as a central developmental process

observational learning

• learning that results from observing

  the behavior of others.

cognitive development

• age-related changes that occur in mental activities such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking, and remembering.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Viewpoint

• criticized for underestimating children’s cognitive capabilities and for

  largely ignoring social and cultural influences.

• adapting to be able to cope with the demands of immediate situations

scheme

• an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope with or explain some aspect of experience.

behavioral schemes

organized patterns of behavior that are used to represent and respond to objects and experiences.

symbolic schemes

internal mental symbols (such as images or verbal codes) that one uses to represent aspects of experience.

operational schemes

Piaget’s term for schemes that utilize cognitive operations, or mental “actions of the head,”

constructivist

children who actively create new understandings of the world based

on their own experiences.

Organization

children combine existing schemes into new and more complex intellectual structures.

Microsystem

interactions between any two individuals in a microsystem are likely to be influenced by third parties

Mesosystem

• development is likely to be optimized by strong, supportive links between microsystems.

• when peer groups devalue academics, they often undermine an adolescent’s scholastic performance, despite the best efforts of parents and teachers to encourage academic achievement

Macrosystem

• where development occurs

• cultural, or subcultural, or social class context in which microsystems,

  mesosystems, and exosystems are embedded.

• broad, overarching ideology

Chronosystem

changes in the child or in any of the ecological contexts

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

(1) human development occurs in a particular sociocultural context that influences the form that it takes, and

(2) many of a child’s most noteworthy personal characteristics and cognitive skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers, and other more competent associates.

• emphasis on collaborative learning

Sociocultural

• affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation passed to individuals by their culture.

Social Information-Processing Theory

• humans are active processors of social information

• casual attributions for their own and other people’s behavior

• we are products of our interpretations of our social experiences

self-knowledge

• self-concept

• self-awareness, and this awareness enables them

  to develop elaborate sets of beliefs about themselves.

interpersonal self

• public self

• helps people connect socially to others

• certain image conveyed to to others

agent self

• executive self

• part that get things done

• enables us to make choices and exert control

self-awareness

• attention directed at the self

• can make people behave better

• makes you able to compare yourself to moral standards

• alcohol reduces self-awareness

• vital for self-regulation

self-regulation

the process people use to control and change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

self-aware state is

unpleasant

presence of a mirror

increase self-awareness

looking-glass self

• Charles Horton Cooley

• refer to the idea that people learn about themselves from other people.

• imagining how they appear to others

generalized other

a combination of other people’s views that tells you who and what you are

introspection

the process by which a person examines the contents of his or her mind and mental states

self comparison

examining the difference between oneself and another person

upward social comaprison

comparing yourself to people better than you

downward social comparison

comparing yourself to people worse off than you

Self-Perception Theory

the theory that people observe their own behavior to infer what they are thinking and how they are feeling

appraisal motive

simple desire to learn the truth about oneself

self-handicapping

putting obstacles in the way of one’s own performance so that anticipated or possible failure can be blamed on the obstacle instead of on lack of ability

self-enhancement motive

the desire to learn favorable or flattering things about the self

consistency motive

a desire to get feedback that confirms what the person already believes about himself or herself

self-reference effect

the finding that information bearing on the self is processed

more thoroughly and more deeply

endowment effect

the finding that items gain in value to the person who owns them

self-esteem

• how favorably someone evaluates himself or herself

• does not just happen

• person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth

self-protection

trying to avoid loss of esteem

Depressed people _____ how favorably other people regard them

estimate accurately

normal people _____ how favorably other people regard them

overestimate

self-deception strategies

mental tricks people use to help them believe things that are false

self-serving bias

a pattern in which people claim credit for success but deny blame for failure

The comedian Billy Crystal used to say, “It is more important to look good

than to feel good!” This concern with looking good to others is called _____.

self-presentation

John is a young gang member who wants to look tough to his fellow gang members. This concern about looking tough is called _____.

self-presentation

Self-presentation concerns often influence people to engage in _____ actions

than they would otherwise engage in.

risky

automatic egotism

people tend to furnish a very positive image of themselves, unless circumstances dictate otherwise.

social acceptance

means getting others to like you, respect you, approve of you, and in general

want to have some kind of relationship with you.

rejection

• also known as social exclusion,

• means that others exclude you, so that you are not able to form or keep a social bond with them.

testosterone

• a hormone associated with masculinity,

• a mixed blessing, both for the individual who has it and for others connected with that person;

• it is better suited to finding mates than to maintaining stable families.

the need to belong

• defined as the desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships,

• is a powerful drive within the human psyche.

social brain theory

the driving force behind the evolution of intelligence and the brain was the need

to understand others so as to form and maintain social relationships.

ingratiation

actively to try to make someone like you.

similarity

common and significant cause of attraction.

propinquity

(being near someone on a regular basis) causes attraction, but it also can to lead to conflict and friction.

social allergy effect

refers to the finding that a partner’s annoying habits grow more annoying with repeated exposure.

ostracism

refers to being excluded, rejected, and ignored by others.

tylenol

pain killers that can reduce social pain and physical pain

loneliness

painful feeling of wanting more human contact or connection (either more quantity or quality of relationships) than you have.

bad apple effect

suggests that one person who breaks the rules can inspire other people to follow his or her example.

physical attractiveness

in the reality tV show Average Joe, Melana based her choice of partners on

regular social contacts; ongoing relationship

the need to belong has two parts, _____ and _____.

4 to 6

Most people seem to think that having about _____ close relationships is

enough.

“Birds of a feather lock together.”

Based on attraction research, which of these proverbs is most accurate?

You will become friends or enemies with that person.

if you live next to someone, what outcome is most likely?

propinquity

if people are seated according to their last names using a seating chart, those with last names that start with the same letter often end up becoming good friends. this inding can be explained by _____.

honesty

According to the what is beautiful is good effect, attractive people have a number of other desirable traits. Which of the following is not one of these traits, at least in Western cultures?

ostracism

Being excluded, rejected, and ignored by others is what social psychologists

call _____.

rejection sensitivity

What personality trait is formed as a result of repeated rejection?

Lonely people are less emotionally sensitive.

What is the main difference between lonely and non-lonely people?

quality

loneliness is primarily determined by the _____ of relationships.

romantic love, parent love, nonsexual love

three kinds of love relationship

passionate love

• they mean having strong feelings of longing, desire, and excitement

• also called romantic love

• spend as much time as possible together, touch each other and engage in other physical intimacies

• cultural construction, possibly introduced into western culture

• temporary insanity

companionate love

• also affectionate love

• calmer and more serene

• perceive the other as your soul-mate or special partner

phenylethylamine (PEA)

• people who is passionately in love have high levels of PEA

• neurotransmitter that enables information to travel from one brain to another.

• suggests that passionate love involves something more basic than cultural learning.

companionate love across time

• harder to create than passionate love

• makes a good marriage and stable, lasting relationship

passionate love across time

• most effective emotion for starting a relationship

making an effective transition from one kind of love to the other.

A successful long-term relationship thus depend on