The Executive A Level Politics

What are the Three Primary Roles of the Executive?

- Making and implementing policy (through decisions made in government departments - known as "Whitehall")
- Proposing the budget (making changes to fiscal policy)
- Proposing legislation (i.e. government bills to be brought before Parliament, which if passed become statute laws)

What does the "Elected" Branch of the Executive Consist of?

- PM
- Cabinet Ministers (22)
- Junior Ministers (95)

(Divided into Ministers of State and Under-Secretaries of State)

What does the Unelected Branch of the Executive Consist of?

- HM Civil Servants (c. 420,000) headed by the Cabinet Secretary and a Permanent Secretary in each department
- Special advisors - party political appointments (88 in 2017)

What are Royal Prerogative Powers?

Powers traditionally held by the monarch, ow normally exercised by the PM or ministers on his/her behalf

What are Some Examples of Prerogative Powers?

- Appointing ministers
- Declaring war / mobilising armed forces
- Signing treaties (though not if citizens are affected - see 2016 Gina Millar case)
- Granting pardons for convicted criminals
- Granting or revoking passports
- Awarding honours
- Appointing Bishops (in practice they follow the advice of the Church)

What Used to be a Royal Prerogative Power?

The power to dissolve Parliament - BUT the Fixed Terms Parliament Act (2011) effectively removed this - now requires a 2/3 majority

What are the other Powers of the Executive?

- Control of the Parliamentary timetable (can determine agenda and time allocated to bills / other motions)
- Ability to initiate primary legislation (i.e. bring bills before Parliament)
- Use of the whip system to "control" MP votes
- Secondary legislation ("statutory instruments" / "Henry VIII clauses") where the terms of an Act of Parliament enable the government to act without consulting Parliament again

What are the Powers of the PM?

- Head of the government (chairs Cabinet meetings, can hire & fire ministers etc.)
- Leader of largest party - has whip system at disposal, can promise MPs promotion
- Head of governing party (appoints party workers e.g. party chairman and can control the conference policy/agenda)
- Most publicly recognised political figure (direct appeal to public e.g. New Year's Message introduced by Cameron, major speeches e.g. May's Lancaster House speech on Brexit)
- International statesmen and figurehead - an make key decisions in global arenas (e.g. EU negotiations)
- Other royal prerogative powers

Who can Remove the PM?

- The electorate
- Parliament
- Their party
- Themselves

How do "Big Beasts" Limit the Power of the PM?

The PM may be reliant on the support of cabinet colleagues in the party or coalition who might challenge them or destabilise their government e.g. Blair - Brown
e.g. Cameron - Clegg/Osbourne

Why does the PM need to keep Party Backbenchers Onside?

To prevent rebellions and stave off leadership challenges

e.g. Cameron pressured by eurosceptic backbenchers to promise EU referendum
e.g. May had to keep both ERG and pro-Europeans happy

Who else does the PM need to Keep Onside?

- Must maintain confidence (and numbers) of party "rank and file" to ensure a well-motivated campaigning machine
- Powerful pressure groups e.g. business, trade unions may influence policy
- Key international allies e.g. USA, EU members, China

What are Other Constrictions on the Power of the PM?

- Requirement to follow court judgements e.g. May & Article 50 2017 Supreme Court case
- PM's word actions constantly under intense media scrutiny(unpopularity with the media esp. major newspapers can be damaging in elections e.g Brown, Major - see also Blair's efforts to get Rupert Murdoch onside)
- Opposition - strength of opposition leader etc.
- Public opinion
- Supranational bodies / treaty commitments e.g. climate treaties

How Effective is the Cabinet in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

- Ministers depend on PM for promotion / job prospects & can be sacked
- Though certain individuals ("big beasts") may be "unsackable"
- Most dangerous "en masse" e.g. 1990 ousting of Thatcher

How Effective is Parliament/Backbenchers in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Threat depends on size of majority and rebelliousness of backbenchers (i.e. willingness to defy whip or defect to other parties)

How Effective is the Party Grassroots in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

- Historically quite easy to ignore - many PMs much more "centrist" than their party members e.g. Blair, Cameron
- Recent moves to give members more say in leadership elections, and grassroots movements such as Momentum may be changing this

How Effective is Public Popularity in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Likelihood of election defeat depends on circumstances and credibility of opposition (including popularity of leader)

How Effective is the Media in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Power of traditional print media may be declining with falling sales, however online media is on the rise

How Effective are Pressure Groups in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Can be side-lined if the PM is sufficiently poplar (e.g. Blair & trade unions)

EU referendum suggests declining influence of traditional PGs i.e. unions, business & professional organisations

How Effective are International Allies in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Possible to appeal to nationalist sentiment to justify defying them

How Effective are the Courts & Judiciary in Limiting the Powers of the PM?

Limited range of intervention possible, Parliament can amend legislation

What Does the Status of the Cabinet Depend on?

The style of government and PM: decision-making may be collective (e.g. Major, Cameron), or simply "rubber-stamping" (e.g. Thatcher, Blair)

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for Expertise in a Particular Area

- Hammond - background in business
- Geoffrey Cox - a QC

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for Personal Loyalty to the PM / Agreement with the PM's Ideological Stance

- Damian Green (now resigned) - friends with May at Oxford
- Chris Grayling - ran May's leadership campaign

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for their High Standing Within the Party, Perhaps Representing a Particular School of Thought

- Gove, Fox - Brexiteers
- Rudd, Gauke - One-Nation

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for "threat" to the PM, who are Bound by Collective Responsibility Within the Cabinet

- Boris Johnson (formerly)
- Leadsom?
- Gove?

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for their Presence in the Coalition

5 Lib Dems in the 2010-2015 government including Clegg as Deputy PM

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for Personal Qualities

- Hunt - experience?
- Johnson - popularity?
- Liddington - a "safe pair of hands"
- Williamson - an "enforcer"

Give Examples of Ministers Chosen for the Desire for a Demographic Range to Represent Society

- Rudd, Leadsom - appointments of women
- Javid - appointment of minorities
- Alun Cairns, David Davis (previously) - working class

What is Meant by the Term Collective Responsibility?

A convention applying to all government ministers - once a decision on government policy has been made and ratified in Cabinet all ministers must publicly support it or else resign

What Impact does this Principle of Collective Responsibility Have?

The Government presents a "united front" and any disagreements take place "behind closed doors" in the Cabinet Room

Name Some Examples of High-Profile Resignations that have Taken Place as a Result of the Principal of Collective Responsibility

2003 - Robin Cook (invasion of Iraq)
2016 - Iain Duncan-Smith (reportedly over cuts to disability benefits
2018 - David Davis and Boris Johnson (May's Chequers Plan)
2018 - Dominic Raab (EU withdrawal agreement)

When has Collective Responsibility been Suspended?

- During referendum campaigns (1975, 2016)
- On issues of "conscience" (e.g. same-sex marriage 2012)

How can Collective Responsibility be "Abused" by the PM?

Way of forcing opponents to support their policies (John Major's "inside the tent" strategy)

How can Collective Responsibility be "Abused" by Ministers?

Can resign purely in an attempt to destabilise or bring down a PM (e.g. Geoffrey Howe 1990, James Purnell 2009)

What are Other Problems with Collective Responsibility?

- In the modern media climate the divisions in government are often well-known (e.g. Blair-Brown feud, Leavers vs. Remainers) - so CR is just a facade (note: there is also often a specific briefing to journalists about what was said in Cabinet)

- It cannot operate as effectively in a coalition as the junior partner has to have more leeway to express different views (e.g. Lib Dems 2010-2015)

What are the Two Elements of Individual Ministerial Responsibility?

- Ministers have overall responsibility for the performance of their departments (even if they are not "directly" involved in any failings)
- Ministers' own conduct should measure up to standard befitting their office (arguably in private as well as in public?)

Give Examples of Ministers who have Resigned Over Departmental Failures

- Thomas Dugdale (Crichel Down Incident 1954) - resigned despite seemingly knowing nothing of the corrupt practices of civil servants in his department

- Lord Carrington - resigned as Foreign Secretary in 1982 for the Foreign Office failing to foresee Argentina's invasion of the Falklands

- Estelle Morris - resigned saying she was "not up for the job" of Education Secretary after relatively minor problems over exam results (2002)

Give Examples of Ministers who have Attempted to "Ride Out" Bad Publicity and claim they will "Put Things Right"

- Charles Clarke (2006) - release of prisoners without deportation
- Chris Grayling - under huge pressure after a series of blunders as Transport Secretary including awarding a ferry contract to a firm with no ships, having to pay Eurotunnel a £33m settlement, and the collapse of new rail timetables

Give Examples of Resignations over "Misconduct": Financial and Professional

- Peter Mandelson (2008) - undisclosed loan from a Cabinet colleague
- David Laws (2010) - claiming expenses for rent which was paid to his partner

Give Examples of Resignations over breaches of MINISTERIAL CODE (first introduced by Major in 1992 but updated by each subsequent PM)

- Priti Patel (2017) - held unauthorised meetings with Israeli officials
- Damien Green (2017) - "officially" for breaching ministerial code by lying about knowledge of pornography on his computer

Give Examples of Resignations over "Misconduct": Private Life

- David Mellor (1992) - affair with actress & "Chelsea football strip" revelations - John Major's Back to Basics campaign
- Michael Fallon (2017) - admitted inappropriate sexual behaviour in the past

However - John Prescott (Labour Deputy PM) continued in office despite a well-publicised affair

For what Style of Government was Thatcher Known?

Prime Ministerial style of government - critics say she downgraded the cabinet's role and failed to consult colleagues

What did Thatcher Do in Place of Meetings with the Whole Cabinet for Policy Discussions?

Thatcher used Cabinet Committees ("Kitchen Cabinets") or bilateral meetings

What was Thatcher's Strategy for the Appointment of Ministers?

Appointed political supporters as ministers - promoted "dries" (e.g. Tebbitt, Ridley), and dismissed One-Nation "wets" (e.g. Pym, Gilmour)

What was Thatcher's Policy on the Use of External Advisors?

Used trusted advisors from outside Cabinet, often in preference to ministers who disagreed with her (e.g. Nigel Lawson resigned as Chancellor in 1989 due to her preference for advisor Alan Walters)

What was Thatcher's Ideological Approach?

- Free market
- Expansion of property ownership
- Opposition to trade-unions
- Eurosceptic (in later years)
- Refused to back down ("the lady's not for turning)

How did Major's Approach Differ from Thatcher's?

More consensus-based approach than Thatcher; initially welcomed as heralding a return to Cabinet Government, but later viewed as weak

Describe Major's Cabinet Meetings?

- Lengthy
- Major often did not have a clear view in advance of discussions

How did Major Fill his Cabinet?

- Sought a balance of opinion from within the Cabinet, from left (Clarke, Heseltine), to right (Howard, Portillo) within the Tory Party; this was partly forced by the small size of his majority and splits within the Parliamentary party
- Happy to appoint "Big Beasts" who possibly rivalled him for authority

What was Major's Style when it Came to Policy Issues?

Pragmatic - willing to U-turn in the face of Parliamentary or public oppression (e.g. Poll Tax, Post Office privatisation)

What are the 4 Main Elements of the Prime Ministerial (Thatcher) Style of Government?

- PM acts as a "chief executive", superior in power to the rest of Cabinet
- PM drives through their own policy agenda and uses Cabinet as a "rubber stamp"
- Other members of Cabinet have a much lower media profile than the PM, they are a team of advisors
- The Cabinet is largely made up of PM's ideological supporters

What are the 4 Main Elements of the Cabinet (Major) Style of Government?

- PM acts like a "chairman of the Cabinet", first among equals in terms of authority
- Policy is made through a process of consensus amongst Cabinet members
- Major figures in the Cabinet ("Big Beasts") rival the PM in terms of significance/authority
- The Cabinet contains a range of views/opinions

Where did David Cameron Stand Within the Conservative Party?

- Liberal wing of the party - pragmatic rather than ideological ("heir to Blair"?)
- Willingness to share power with the Lib Dems (2010-2015) reflects his liberal brand of conservatism

What Style of Government did the Coalition Produce?

- More collective style of decision-making ("an end to sofa government")
- All Cabinet committees had to have a Chair from one Coalition party and a Deputy from the other - 5 Lib Dems in Cabinet at all times, chosen by Clegg

How were Some Policy Decisions Made Outside Cabinet under Cameron?

Some major decisions made in bilateral meetings between Cameron and Clegg, or in the "Quad" (Cameron, Clegg, Osbourne, Alexander)

What Struggle did Cameron Face as PM?

- Faced threats from right-wing of his party (e.g. pressure to campaign for NO vote on AV, and promise referendum on EU)
- Also needed to keep Lib Dems inside the Coalition (hence compromised e.g. on raising tax allowance, keeping HRA)

How was Cameron with the Media?

Skilled media handler with background in PR; introduced "New Year Messages" by the PM - perhaps would have had presidential inclinations but limited by the nature of his government/mandate

What Enabled Blair to act as a Presidential-Style PM?

- Large majorities and relatively united party enable strong control of Parliamentary voting (esp. in first 2 terms - NO defeats)
- Extraordinary personal power within the executive

What is Meant by the Term "Sofa Government"?

Decisions made informally by a trusted inner circle, including powerful advisors from outside Cabinet (e.g. Alistair Campbell, Andrew Adonis)

What was the Format of Cabinet Meetings under Blair?

Cabinet meetings were short (c. 40 mins) and little "dissent" was permitted - e.g. there was never serious discussion of Iraq in Cabinet

What was Blair's Policy on Using External Advisors?

Many personal staff employed at 10 Downing Street - a "Prime Minister's Department" with broad involvement across many policy areas (at peak 27 SPADs working directly for Blair), downgrading the Whitehall departments

Note - economy was the only real exception - this was Gordon Brown's domain

What was Blair's Supposed Culture of "Spin"?

Control of messages via media - Blair introduced monthly PM conferences, and expected his ministers and MPs to be "on message"

To what Extent did Blair take Control of Policy Himself?

Strong personal control of policy agenda, esp. in foreign affairs e.g."Blair's War"

How have PMs Attempted to Campaign in a Presidential Style?

Focus of election campaigns on "leadership"
- Thatcher in 1983 after the Falklands
- Blair very prominent in 1997 and 2001 campaigns
- 2010 saw televised leader debates based on US model for the first time in the UK
- May "attempted" to do this in 2017 - "Strong and stable leadership with Theresa May"

How do Presidential-Style PMs Interact with the Nations?

High media profile and attempts to communicate directly to the nation
- Blair's "eve of war" broadcasts
- Monthly press conferences
- Chat show appearances

What is Meant by the Term "Spatial Leadership"?

Policies associated directly with the PM rather than the party/government
- Thatcher's poll tax
- Blair's Iraq War
- Dominance of the leader over Cabinet in these 2 governments especially

How do Presidential-Style PM's Select a Personalised "team"?

Appointment of supporters to Cabinet and use of advisors from outside Parliament
- Thatcher - Alan Walters
- Blair - Alistair Campbell
- Cameron - Andy Coulson
- Many personal staff employed to work at 10 Downing Street, creating a "Prime Minister's Department" separate from, and superior to, the rest of Whitehall

Note - The term "spatial leadership" is used by Foley to describe this separation of the PM from other elements of government

How may a Presidential-Style PM Attempt to Usurp the Power of the Monarch as a National Figurehead?

- Blair reading at Princess Diana's funeral and having tea with the Ashes winning team
- Involvement of family with Cherlie Blair behaving like a "first lady", speaking out on policy issues
- Cameron's "Web Cameron" (when in opposition)
- Flying of olympic flag at 10 Downing Street

Examples of PM's Playing a Large Role in International Affairs

- Blair-Bush relationship
- Cameron's/May's EU "negotiatons"

What did Peter Hennessey argue about the Role of the PM?

It is "flexible" - it depends on the personality of the PM and the circumstances of their office
- Major less presidential in terms of both degree of power and style of leadership
- Brown not that interested in "Head of State" role - awkward performer in front of cameras (Artic Monkeys etc...)
- Cameron showed Presidential aspirations in opposition but could not easily in government due to Coalition; more of a "double act" with Clegg
- May has reigned in Presidential aspiration somewhat since the 2017 election (though still tried to appeal "direct" to the people over Brexit)

How Can it be Argued that a PM is in Some Ways More Powerful than a US President?

- Their power of patronage, to appoint MPs to government, gives them a means of influencing votes in Parliament (promising promotion to those who are loyal)
- PM's also have a role in appointing members fo the legislature (i.e. the House of Lords)
- Hence Nick Cohen's claim that Blair at his peak was more like a "king" than "president"