Childhood and Adolescence Exam 1 Study Guide (Chapters 1-3)

What is child development?

The scientific study of the patterns of growth, change, and stability that occur from conception through adolescence.

Focuses on universals and individual differences in humans.

Physical Development

Growth in size, strength, and muscle coordination.

Cognitive Development

Changes in thinking, remembering, and communication.

Social Development

Changes in how children interact with others and manage their emotions.

Cohort

Group of people born at around the same time in the same place.

History-Graded Influences

Influences associated with a historical moment (ex. covid-19 pandemic).

Age-Graded Influences

Influences similar for people of a particular age group (ex. beginning school).

Sociocultural-Graded Influences

Influences of group membership (ex. race, gender, culture, etc.)

Non-Normative Life Events

Influences of specific events that happen at an atypical time (ex. a child losing their parents).

Continuity

Development is gradual (ex. growing taller).

Discontinuity

Development occurs in distinct steps or stages (ex. learning to speak or walk).

Critical Period

Time when an event has its great consequences.

Emphasizes permanence.

Sensitive Period

Time when people are especially susceptible to events.

Emphasizes flexibility and plasticity.

This term is preferred over Critical Period.

Nature

Influence of genetics on behavior.

Nurture

Influence of the environment on behavior.

Operant Conditioning

A response is strengthened or weakened by its association with consequences.

Created by Skinner.

Contextual Perspective

Considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds.

Bioecological Approach

A theory of human development that focuses on the complex interactions between an individual and their environment.

Created by Bronfenbrenner.

Microsystem

Direct effects on the child.

Mesosystem

Interrelationships among microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect effects on the child.

Macrosystem

Influence of culture on the child.

Chronosystem

Influence of time on the child.

Correlational Studies

Research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists.

Cannot be used to determine whether one factor causes changes in the other.

Experimental Studies

Research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors.

Researchers deliberately introduce a change in a carefully constructed situation to see the consequences of that change.

Longitudinal Studies

Same individuals studied repeatedly over time.

Strengths: Can investigate continuity/discontinuity of behavior and the effects of early experiences on later development.

Weaknesses: Attrition (participants drop out, time investment, participants may become test-wise.

Cross-Sectional Studies

People of different ages studied at the same point in time.

Strengths: Less time consuming.

Weaknesses: Cannot investigate continuity of development or effects of early experiences.

Sequential Studies

A number of different age groups studied over several points in time.

Strengths: Can investigate continuity of development and effects of early experiences, as well as reveal cohort effects.

Weaknesses: Time investment.

Research Ethical Guidelines

1. Protect participants from physical and psychological harm.

2. Obtain informed consent (from participants and parents/guardians).

3. Deception must be justified and cause no harm (followed by debriefing).

4. Privacy must be maintained.

Passive Gene-Environment Relation

Parents pass on genes and parents provide environment.

Evocative Gene-Environment Relation

Children’s genetically influenced characteristics evoke responses from others (evoke certain environments).

Active Gene-Environment Relation

Children actively seek out environments they find stimulating based on their genetically determined abilities.

Ultrasound

Images of the fetus produced by soundwaves.

Detects physical abnormalities, sex, and approximate due date.

Amniocentesis

Cells tested that are withdrawn from the amniotic fluid.

Screens for genetic disorders.

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

Cells tested from a small tissue sample taken from the chorionic layer of the placenta.

Screens for genetic disorders.

Can be conducted earlier than amniocentesis.

Germinal Stage

The fertilized egg travels toward the uterus, where it becomes implanted in the uterine wall.

Duration: conception - week 2

Embryonic Stage

All major internal and external structures form (from 3 distinct layers).

Period of maximum risk to the developing embryo.

3 major support structures not inside embryo form: amniotic sac, placenta, and the umbilical cord.

Duration: weeks 3 - 8

Amniotic Sac

Provides a constant temperature.

Placenta

Exchanges nutrients, oxygen, and waste between the embryo and mother.

Umbilical Cord

Links the placenta to the embryo.

Teratogens

Any substance or environmental factor that might affect a pregnancy and cause birth defects.

Principles of How Teratogens Work

• Impact depends on the genotype of the organism.

• Impact changes over the course of prenatal development.

• Each teratogen affects a specific aspect of prenatal development.

• Impact of teratogen depends on dose.

• Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth and may appear later.

Impact of Father’s Behavior on Prenatal Development

• Secondhand smoke from a father’s cigarette can affect the mother’s health, which then affects the health of the unborn child.

• Alcohol and drug use impairs sperm and may lead to chromosomal damage of the fetus at conception.

• Environmental toxins from the workplace like lead or mercury may bind to the sperm and cause birth defects.

• Unhealthy/abusive environment puts stress on the mother, affecting the fetus’ heath.

Impact of Smoking during Pregnancy

• Reduces the amount of oxygen available to the fetus.

• Slows the respiration rate and speeds up the heart of the fetus.

• Increased risk of miscarriage or death during infancy.

• Babies are more likely to have an abnormally low birth weight, shorter height, be intellectually disabled, and exhibit disruptive behavior during childhood.