Unit 1A: the Renaissance and Exploration

by Veda Venkat

Jacob Burckhardt

• Swiss historian (1818-1897).

• Known for "The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy" (1860).

• Popularized the concept of the Renaissance as a distinct historical period.

Patronage

• Financial support provided by wealthy individuals or institutions.

• Crucial for the development of art and culture during the Renaissance.

• The Medici family in Florence were notable patrons.

Commercial Revolution

• Period of European economic expansion from the 11th to 18th centuries.

• Marked by the rise of banking, joint-stock companies, and colonialism.

• Laid the foundation for modern capitalism.

Florence

• An Italian city-state that was a major center of the Renaissance.

• Known for its art, architecture, and cultural achievements.

• Home to influential families like the Medici.

Banking

• Financial institutions that manage money, provide loans, and facilitate trade.

• The Medici family in Florence became powerful through banking.

• Banking was essential to the Commercial Revolution and the Renaissance economy.

Merchant Elites

• Wealthy and influential merchants who controlled trade and commerce.

• Played a key role in the economic and political life of Italian city-states.

• Often acted as patrons of the arts.

Italian City-States

• Independent, self-governing cities in Italy during the Renaissance (e.g., Florence, Venice).

• Centers of trade, art, and culture.

• Often ruled by powerful families or oligarchies.

Sforza Family

• A powerful ruling family in Milan during the Renaissance.

• Gained control of Milan in the 15th century.

• Known for their patronage of the arts and strong military leadership.

Medici Family

• Influential banking family that ruled Florence during the Renaissance.

• Major patrons of the arts, supporting artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

• Played a significant role in the politics and culture of Florence.

Girolamo Savonarola

• An Italian Dominican friar and preacher in Florence.

• Led a religious reform movement and briefly took control of Florence.

• Known for his "Bonfire of the Vanities," where he burned art and luxury items.

Petrarch

• Italian scholar and poet (1304-1374).

• Known as the "Father of Humanism."

• His work laid the groundwork for the Renaissance humanist movement.

Humanism

• Intellectual movement of the Renaissance focusing on human potential and achievements.

• Emphasized the study of classical texts and the value of the individual.

• Key figures include Petrarch and Erasmus.

Pico della Mirandola

• Italian Renaissance philosopher (1463-1494).

• Known for his work "Oration on the Dignity of Man," which emphasized human potential.

• His ideas were central to Renaissance humanism

Virtù

• Renaissance concept emphasizing the qualities of bravery, strength, and wisdom.

• Refers to the ability to shape the world around oneself.

• Central to the idea of the "Renaissance Man."

Renaissance Man

• A person with knowledge and skills in a wide range of fields.

• Embodies the ideals of the Renaissance, combining intellect, creativity, and physical ability.

• Examples include Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Humanist Education

• Educational system based on the study of classical texts and liberal arts.

• Aimed at developing well-rounded individuals with moral and intellectual virtues.

• Central to the curriculum in Renaissance Europe.

The Book of the Courtier

• A book by Baldassare Castiglione (1528) describing the ideal courtier.

• Emphasizes the qualities of grace, education, and virtù.

• Influential in shaping the ideals of Renaissance court life.

Niccolò Machiavelli

• Italian political philosopher (1469-1527).

• Best known for "The Prince" (1513), a guide on political power.

• His ideas on power and statecraft have had a lasting impact.

Christian Humanism

• A Renaissance movement combining humanist ideals with Christian beliefs.

• Focused on reforming the Church and applying humanist principles to religion.

• Key figures include Erasmus and Thomas More.

Thomas More

• English statesman and humanist (1478-1535).

• Author of "Utopia," a book describing an ideal society.

• Executed for refusing to accept Henry VIII's separation from the Catholic Church.

Erasmus

• Dutch humanist and theologian (1466-1536).

• Prominent Christian humanist known for works like "In Praise of Folly."

• Advocated for Church reform and emphasized the study of the Bible

Printing Press

• Invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440.

• Revolutionized the production of books and the spread of knowledge.

• Played a crucial role in the dissemination of Renaissance and Reformation ideas.

Michelangelo

• Italian sculptor, painter, and architect (1475-1564).

• Known for masterpieces like the Sistine Chapel ceiling and the statue of David.

• A leading figure of the High Renaissance.

Portraits

• Artistic representation of individuals, often commissioned by wealthy patrons.

• Became popular during the Renaissance as a way to display status and wealth.

• Examples include Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" and Raphael's "Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione."

Donatello

• Italian sculptor (1386-1466) known for his work in bronze and marble.

• Famous for his statue of David, the first freestanding nude since antiquity.

• A key figure in the development of Renaissance art.

Brunelleschi

• Italian architect and engineer (1377-1446).

• Best known for designing the dome of the Florence Cathedral.

• Pioneered techniques in linear perspective and architectural design.

Italian Renaissance

• A cultural movement in Italy from the 14th to the 17th century.

• Marked by a revival of classical art, literature, and learning.

• Key cities include Florence, Venice, and Rome.

Northern Renaissance

• Renaissance movement in Northern Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries.

• Focused more on religious reform and detailed realism in art.

• Key figures include Albrecht Dürer and Jan van Eyck.

Jan van Eyck

• Flemish painter (c. 1390-1441).

• Known for his detailed and realistic oil paintings.

• Famous works include the "Ghent Altarpiece" and "Arnolfini Portrait."

Albrecht Dürer

• German painter and printmaker (1471-1528).

• Known for his woodcuts, engravings, and self-portraits.

• A leading figure of the Northern Renaissance.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

• Flemish painter (c. 1525-1569).

• Known for his depictions of peasant life and landscapes.

• Famous works include "The Harvesters" and "The Tower of Babel."

Raphael

• Italian painter and architect (1483-1520).

• Known for his Madonnas and the frescoes in the Vatican's Raphael Rooms- school of athens

• A master of composition and the idealized human form.

Women in the Arts

• Women in the Renaissance had limited opportunities to become artists.

• Some, like Sofonisba Anguissola and Artemisia Gentileschi, gained recognition.

• Faced significant barriers due to societal expectations and gender norms.

Black Africans in Renaissance Europe

• Black Africans were present in Europe during the Renaissance, often as servants, slaves, or courtiers.

• Some achieved notable positions, such as musicians or artists.

• Their presence is depicted in various works of art from the period.

Hierarchy of Wealth

• Social stratification based on wealth, prominent during the Renaissance.

• Wealthy merchants and bankers often held power over poorer classes.

• Influenced the political and social structures of Italian city-states.

Querelle des Femmes

• "The Woman Question," a debate about the role and status of women.

• Began in the late Middle Ages and continued through the Renaissance.

• Addressed issues of women's education, rights, and societal roles.

Christine de Pizan

• French poet and author (1364-1430).

• One of the first women to make a living as a writer.

• Known for works defending women, such as "The Book of the City of Ladies."

New Monarchs

• European rulers in the 15th and 16th centuries who centralized power.

• Examples include Henry VII of England, Ferdinand, and Isabella of Spain.

• Strengthened royal authority and reduced the power of the nobility.

Taille

• A direct tax imposed by the French monarchy on the common people.

• Became a significant source of revenue for the crown in the late Middle Ages.

• Unpopular and often a cause of peasant unrest.

Henry VII

• King of England (1485-1509) and founder of the Tudor dynasty.

• Ended the Wars of the Roses by defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth.

• Strengthened the monarchy and established the Court of the Star Chamber.

Isabella & Ferdinand

• Catholic Monarchs of Spain (r. 1474-1516) who united Spain through their marriage.

• Initiated the Reconquista, expelling Muslims from Granada.

• Sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World in 1492.

Court of the Star Chamber

• A judicial body established by Henry VII in England.

• Used to deal with cases of noble misconduct and enforce royal authority.

• Known for its secretive and often harsh proceedings.

Reconquista

• The Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule.

• Completed in 1492 with the capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella.

• Marked the end of centuries of Muslim presence in Spain.

Inquisition

• A Church-led effort to root out heresy, particularly in Spain.

• Established by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1478.

• Targeted Jews, Muslims, and later Protestants, often using torture.

“Purity of Blood” Laws

• Spanish laws (limpieza de sangre) that discriminated against those of Jewish or Muslim ancestry.

• Used to determine eligibility for certain positions and rights.

• Reflected the growing importance of religious and ethnic purity in Spain.

Polish Problems

• Refers to the political difficulties faced by Poland in maintaining its independence.

• Poland struggled with internal divisions and external threats from neighboring powers.

• Eventually led to the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century

Ivan III

• Grand Prince of Moscow (r. 1462-1505), also known as Ivan the Great.

• Expanded Russian territory and centralized power.

• Laid the foundation for the Russian state, breaking free from Mongol rule

Mehmet II

• Ottoman Sultan (r. 1444-1446, 1451-1481) also known as Mehmet the Conqueror.

• Captured Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

• Expanded the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans and Anatolia.

Charles V

• Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519-1556) and King of Spain as Charles I.

• Ruler of a vast empire, including Spain, the Americas, and much of Europe.

• Struggled with religious conflicts, particularly the Protestant Reformation.

Carnival

• A festive season preceding Lent, characterized by feasts, parades, and revelry.

• Popular in medieval and Renaissance Europe, particularly in Catholic regions.

• Served as a social release and an opportunity for reversal of social norms.

Nuclear Family

• A family unit consisting of parents and their children.

• Became increasingly common in Renaissance Europe, replacing extended family structures.

• Reflects the emphasis on individual households and privacy.

Delayed Marriage

• A common practice in Renaissance Europe where people married later in life, often in their late 20s or 30s.

• Due to economic and social factors, such as needing to establish a household.

• Resulted in lower birth rates and smaller family sizes.

Blood Sports

• Forms of entertainment involving the shedding of blood, often in animal fights.

• Popular in medieval and Renaissance Europe, including activities like bear-baiting.

• Reflects the violent and brutal aspects of popular culture at the time.

Stocks

• A form of punishment where offenders were publicly humiliated by being locked in wooden devices.

• Common in medieval and Renaissance Europe for minor offenses.

• Served as a deterrent and a way to maintain public order.

Indian Ocean Trade

• A vast network of maritime trade routes connecting East Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia.

• Flourished from ancient times through the Renaissance.

• Facilitated the exchange of goods, cultures, and ideas.

Malacca

• A strategic port city on the Malay Peninsula.

• A key center of trade in the Indian Ocean, linking East Asia and the Middle East.

• Controlled by various powers, including the Portuguese and the Dutch.

Gold/Slave Trade in Africa

• The trade of gold and enslaved people from Africa, particularly West Africa, to Europe and the Americas.

• Played a significant role in the global economy from the 15th century onwards.

• Contributed to the wealth of European nations and the devastation of African societies.

1453

• The year Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks under Mehmet II.

• Marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and a turning point in European and Middle Eastern history.

• Often seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.

Venetian & Genoese Merchants

• Dominant traders in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

• Played key roles in the exchange of goods between Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.

• Their wealth and influence contributed to the prosperity of their respective city-states.

Economic Motives

• The desire for wealth and resources driving European exploration and colonization.

• Included the search for new trade routes, precious metals, and profitable colonies.

• A key factor in the European expansion during the Age of Exploration.

Religious Motives

• The desire to spread Christianity and convert non-Christians.

• Often intertwined with economic and political goals in European exploration.

• Justified the colonization of new lands and the subjugation of indigenous peoples.

Conquistadors

• Spanish conquerors who explored and colonized the Americas in the 16th century.

• Led by figures like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro.

• Responsible for the defeat of the Aztec and Incan empires.

Caravel

• A small, fast ship used by Portuguese and Spanish explorers during the Age of Exploration.

• Designed for long voyages, with lateen sails for better maneuverability.

• Key to the success of early European exploration efforts.

Ptolemy’s Geography

• An ancient Greek text that was rediscovered in Europe during the Renaissance.

• Provided a comprehensive guide to the known world and influenced Renaissance cartography.

• Though inaccurate, it was a key reference for European explorers.

Compass

• Navigational instrument used to determine direction.

• Became essential for maritime exploration during the Age of Exploration.

• Allowed sailors to navigate more accurately and venture farther from land.

Prince Henry the Navigator

• Portuguese prince (1394-1460) who sponsored early voyages of exploration.

• Established a school for navigators and encouraged the exploration of the African coast.

• Played a key role in the early phases of the Portuguese exploration.

Portuguese Trading Cities

• Key ports established by the Portuguese along the African and Asian coasts during the Age of Exploration.

• Served as hubs for trade in spices, gold, and other goods.

• Examples include Goa, Malacca, and Mozambique.

Bartholomeu Dias

• Portuguese explorer who was the first to sail around the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

• His voyage opened the sea route to Asia.

• Paved the way for later explorations by Vasco da Gama and others

Vasco da Gama

• Portuguese explorer who reached India by sea in 1498.

• His voyage established a direct trade route between Europe and Asia.

• Significantly boosted Portuguese wealth and influence.

Christopher Columbus

• Genoese navigator who sailed under the Spanish flag.

• Made four voyages to the Americas between 1492 and 1504.

• His discovery of the New World opened the Americas to European exploration and colonization.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• An agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494, dividing the New World between them.

• Spain received most of the Americas, while Portugal gained control of Brazil and parts of Africa and Asia.

• Helped prevent conflict between the two major colonial powers.

Ferdinand Magellan

• Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (1519-1522).

• Although Magellan was killed in the Philippines, his expedition proved the world was round.

• His voyage marked a major milestone in global exploration.

French Canadian Fur Trade

• The trading of furs, especially beaver pelts, between French settlers and Indigenous peoples in North America.

• A major economic activity in New France during the 17th and 18th centuries.

• Contributed to the French colonial economy and expansion into the interior of North America.

Aztec Empire

• A powerful Mesoamerican civilization centered in present-day Mexico.

• Conquered by the Spanish under Hernán Cortés in 1521.

• Known for its complex society, impressive architecture, and religious practices.

Incan Empire

• A vast empire in the Andes of South America, with its capital at Cusco.

• Conquered by the Spanish under Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.

• Noted for its advanced engineering, including terraced agriculture and road systems.

Viceroyalties

• Administrative divisions in the Spanish colonies, each ruled by a viceroy representing the Spanish crown.

• Key viceroyalties included New Spain (Mexico) and Peru.

• Helped manage the vast Spanish Empire in the Americas.

Encomienda System

• A labor system in Spanish colonies where colonists were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous people.

• In exchange, the colonists were expected to protect and Christianize the Indigenous population.

• Often led to severe exploitation and abuse of Indigenous peoples.

Mita

• A labor system used by the Incas, later adopted by the Spanish in their colonies.

• Required Indigenous people to work on public projects, such as mining.

• Often harsh and exploitative, contributing to the decline of Indigenous populations.

Role of Women in Colonization

• Women in colonial societies often played roles as settlers, laborers, and intermediaries.

• Some women, especially in Spanish America, managed estates and businesses.

• Their roles were often limited by gender norms, but they contributed to the colonial economy and society.

Columbian Exchange

• The exchange of goods, ideas, plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages.

• Introduced new crops like potatoes and corn to Europe, while bringing horses and cattle to the Americas.

• Had profound impacts on global populations, economies, and environments.

Smallpox

• A deadly disease that was brought to the Americas by European colonists.

• Decimated Indigenous populations, who had no immunity to it.

• Played a major role in the collapse of Native American civilizations.

European Livestock

• Animals such as horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep introduced to the Americas by European colonists.

• Transformed agriculture and transportation in the New World.

• Also caused environmental changes and conflicts with Indigenous peoples.

Corn

• A staple crop originally from the Americas, also known as maize.

• Spread to Europe, Africa, and Asia after the Columbian Exchange.

• Became a key food source worldwide, transforming diets and agriculture

Potatoes

• A tuber native to the Andes in South America.

• Introduced to Europe through the Columbian Exchange, where it became a staple crop.

• Helped sustain population growth in Europe due to its nutritional value.

Sugarcane

• A tropical plant used to produce sugar, first cultivated in Asia.

• Brought to the Americas by European colonists, where it became a major cash crop.

• The demand for sugar drove the transatlantic slave trade, as plantations required extensive labor.

Atlantic Slave Trade

• The forced transportation of Africans to the Americas as part of the triangular trade.

• Fueled the economies of European colonies through the labor of enslaved people.

• Led to the displacement, suffering, and death of millions of Africans.

Potosí

• A city in present-day Bolivia that was the site of a massive silver mine.

• Became one of the wealthiest cities in the world during the 16th century.

• The silver from Potosí fueled the Spanish economy and global trade.

Spanish Silver

• Silver mined in the Americas, particularly from Potosí, that was shipped to Spain.

• Became the basis of Spain's wealth and power in the 16th and 17th centuries.

• Also led to inflation and economic challenges in Spain and Europe.

Inflation

• The general increase in prices and the decline in the value of money.

• In 16th-century Europe, inflation was partly caused by the influx of silver from the Americas.

• Contributed to economic instability and social unrest.

Dutch East India Company

• A powerful Dutch trading company founded in 1602.

• Dominated trade between Europe and Asia, particularly in spices.

• Played a key role in the Dutch Golden Age and the establishment of Dutch colonial empires.

Jesuit Missionaries

• Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded in 1540.

• Played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation and in spreading Christianity globally.

• Established missions in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, often blending local cultures with Christian teachings.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

• Spanish Dominican friar and historian (1484-1566).

• Known for advocating for the rights of Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

• Wrote extensively about the abuses of the encomienda system and called for reform.

Castas

• A hierarchical system of racial classification in Spanish America.

• Created a complex social structure based on the mixture of European, Indigenous, and African ancestry.

• Reflected the social and racial divisions in colonial Latin American societies.

Scientific Justification (Race/Gender)

• The use of pseudo-scientific theories to justify racial and gender inequalities.

• Became prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries, influencing attitudes and policies.

• Used to rationalize the subjugation of non-Europeans and the marginalization of women.

Michel de Montaigne

• French philosopher and writer (1533-1592).

• Known for developing the essay as a literary form.

• His works explored themes of skepticism, cultural relativism, and the nature of human experience.

William Shakespeare

• English playwright and poet (1564-1616).

• Widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language.

• His works include tragedies like "Hamlet," comedies like "A Midsummer Night's Dream," and historical plays like "Henry V."

Price Revolution

• A period of rising prices in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries.

• Largely caused by the influx of silver and gold from the Americas.

• Led to economic and social changes, including the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism.

Joint-Stock Company

• A business entity where different investors own shares of the company.

• Played a key role in European exploration and colonization, as they allowed for the pooling of resources.

• Examples include the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company.

Bank of Amsterdam

• Established in 1609, it became the first modern central bank.

• Provided a stable currency and facilitated international trade.

• Contributed to Amsterdam's status as a leading financial center in Europe.

Mercantilism

• An economic theory and practice that dominated European economic policy from the 16th to the 18th centuries. 

• Focused on accumulating wealth, particularly gold and silver, through a favorable balance of trade. 

• Encouraged state intervention in the economy and the establishment of colonies to provide raw materials.