AP Psychology Unit 3

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across their entire lifespan, from conception to death and the various factors that influence these changes.

Cross-Sectional Study

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time to understand age-related differences.

Longitudinal Study

A research approach that follows a single group of individuals over an extended period to observe changes and developments in behavior or characteristics.

Teratogens

Environmental agents, such as drugs, chemicals, or viruses, that can cause malformation or abnormal development in a fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, characterized by physical abnormalities, cognitive deficits, and behavioral issues in the child.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations, demonstrating learning through experience.

Maturation

The biological growth processes that enable automatic, sequential changes in behavior, largely independent of experience or environment.

Critical Period

A specific time frame during development when the presence or absence of certain experiences has a profound impact on development.

Adolescence

The transitional stage of development typically occurring between the ages of 12 and 18, marked by physical, emotional, and psychological changes

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which individuals become capable of reproduction and experience various physical and hormonal changes.

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation and fertility in women, usually occurring in middle age, along with associated hormonal changes.

Sex

The biological classification based on physical characteristics, such as reproductive anatomy, typically categorized as male or female.

Gender

The societal and cultural roles, behaviors, and identities that are associated with being male, female, or non-binary.

Intersex

A condition where an individual is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit typical definitions of male or female.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm or intimidate others, which can be physical or verbal in nature.

Relational Aggression

A form of aggression that harms others through manipulation of social relationships, often involving gossip or social exclusion.

X Chromosome

One of the two sex chromosomes in humans; females typically have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males, which determines male sex characteristics and influences sex-linked traits.

Testosterone

The primary male sex hormone responsible for the development of male primary and secondary sexual characteristics.

Estrogens

A group of hormones responsible for the development of female sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual cycle.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The physical structures directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries in females and testes in males.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development in females and facial hair in males.

Spermarche

The onset of sperm production in males, marking the beginning of male puberty.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females, marking the onset of female puberty.

Role

The expected behavior and responsibilities associated with a particular social position or status.

Gender Role

The behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that society considers appropriate for men and women.

Sexual Aggression

Any sexual act or attempt to engage in sexual acts that occurs without consent, often involving coercion or force.

Gender Identity

A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may not necessarily align with their biological sex.

Social Learning Theory

A theory proposing that behaviors are learned through observation and imitation of others, as well as reinforcement and punishment.

Gender Typing

The process through which children learn and internalize the social expectations associated with their gender.

Androgyny

A blend of both masculine and feminine characteristics in an individual’s appearance or behavior.

Sexuality

A broad term encompassing sexual orientation, preferences, and behaviors.

Asexual

Describing individuals who experience little to no sexual attraction to others.

Social Script

Cultural guidelines that dictate expected behaviors and roles in social situations, including interactions related to gender and sexuality

Sexual Orientation

An individual’s pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others, typically categorized as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.

Jean Piaget

A psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children, explaining how they construct knowledge and understand the world.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences.

Assimilation

The process of integrating new information into existing schemas without changing the schema itself.

Accommodation

The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information or experiences.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory (birth to 2 years), where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or perceived, developed during the sensorimotor stage.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage of Piaget's cognitive development (2 to 7 years), characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism but lacking logical reasoning.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or size, typically developed during the concrete operational stage.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, common in children during the preoperational stage.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage of Piaget's theory (7 to 11 years), where children gain the ability to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

The final stage of Piaget's cognitive development (12 years and up), characterized by abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and problem-solving.

Scaffold

A supportive framework provided during learning to assist a learner in achieving a higher level of understanding or skill.

Theory of Mind

The ability to recognize that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives, which can differ from one's own.

Language

A system of communication using symbols, sounds, or gestures to convey meaning and express thoughts.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit of language, which can be a word or a part of a word, such as a prefix or suffix.

Grammar

The set of rules that governs the structure of sentences and the combination of words in a language.

Universal Grammar (UG)

Chomsky's theory that suggests all human languages share a common underlying structure, which is innate to the human brain.

Babbling Stage

The early phase of language development in infants (around 4-6 months) characterized by the production of random sounds and syllables.

One-Word Stage

The stage of language development (around 12 months) when children begin to use single words to convey whole ideas or messages.

Two-Word Stage

A stage in language development (around 18-24 months) where children start combining two words to form simple sentences.

Telegraphic Speech

A form of speech in young children that consists of short and simple sentences, usually containing only essential words (e.g., “want cookie”).

Aphasia

A communication disorder that affects a person’s ability to process and produce language, often due to brain injury or disease.

Broca’s Area

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain associated with language production and speech.

Wernicke’s Area

A brain region located in the temporal lobe involved in the comprehension of language.

Linguistic Determinism

The hypothesis that language shapes and limits human thought and perception, suggesting that speakers of different languages experience the world differently.

Linguistic Relativism

The concept that language influences thought processes and cultural perceptions, but does not strictly determine them.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory that examines how different environmental systems interact and influence human development.

Stranger Anxiety

A developmental stage where infants show fear or wariness toward unfamiliar people, typically occurring between 8 and 12 months.

Attachment

The emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, impacting the child's development.

Harry Harlow

A psychologist known for his research on attachment using rhesus monkeys, emphasizing the importance of comfort and emotional support.

Margaret Harlow

A psychologist who collaborated with Harry Harlow in his attachment studies, contributing to findings on the importance of maternal care.

Imprinting

A rapid and instinctive form of attachment observed in certain animals, where they form bonds with the first moving object they see, often their caregiver.

Mary Ainsworth

A developmental psychologist recognized for her work on attachment styles, particularly through the "Strange Situation" experiment.

Strange Situation

A standardized procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to observe and assess attachment styles in children through structured separations and reunions with their caregiver.

Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style characterized by comfort with intimacy and the ability to depend on others.

Insecure Attachment

An unhealthy attachment style marked by anxiety or avoidance in relationships, often stemming from inconsistent caregiver responses.

Temperament

An individual’s innate characteristics, including emotional reactions and regulation, often observed early in life and thought to remain stable over time.

Erik Erikson

A developmental psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, outlining eight stages through which individuals navigate challenges.

Basic Trust

A concept from Erikson’s theory referring to the belief that the world is safe and that needs will be met, typically developed in infancy.

Self-Concept

The understanding of oneself and one's identity, including beliefs about capabilities and self-worth.

Diana Baumrind

A developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles and their effects on child development.

Identity

The understanding and perception of oneself, often formed during adolescence through exploration of different roles and experiences.

Social Identity

The portion of an individual’s self-concept that is derived from their membership in social groups, including affiliations with gender, race, and culture.

Intimacy

The ability to form close, meaningful relationships characterized by emotional closeness, trust, and mutual support.

Emerging Adulthood

A developmental stage occurring roughly between the late teens and mid-20s, characterized by exploration and gradual transition to adult responsibilities.

Social Clock

The societal expectations regarding the timing of major life events, such as marriage, education, and career milestones.

Learning

The process of acquiring knowledge or skills through experience, practice, or instruction.

Associative Learning

A learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus, often implicit or automatic.

Stimulus

Any object or event in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus, often studied in classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that is influenced by the consequences that follow it, often linked to reinforcement or punishment.

Cognitive Learning

A type of learning that involves mental processes and may occur without observable behaviors, such as insight or observational learning.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist known for his research in classical conditioning, particularly the famous experiments with dogs.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process whereby a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

John B. Watson

An American psychologist who established the principles of behaviorism and emphasized the importance of observable behaviors over internal mental processes.

Behaviorism

A theoretical perspective that focuses on observable behaviors and the roles of environmental factors in shaping behavior.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially has no effect on the desired response but can become a conditioned stimulus through association.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An initially neutral stimulus that, after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened

Higher-Order Conditioning

A learning process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, eventually leading to the new stimulus eliciting the conditioned response.