Sociology (MCAT)

sociology

macro- social structures determine human behavior
micro- individual interpretation determines human behavior

functionalism

individual parts working together to maintain solidarity and social stability, maintain homeostasis and dynamic equilibrium, macro-level

manifest function- intended function of social structure

latent function- unintended consequences of social structure

convergence theory- globalization leads to a united global culture

Emile Durkheim- a founder of modern sociology, believer of functionalism, dynamic equilibrium of interdependent parts, individual is significant only in terms of contribution to society

conflict theory (2)

society is competition of limited resources, power and status shape our reality, macro-level

social stratification- class divide creates conflict

Karl Marx- a founder of modern sociology, conflict theory, class struggle between those who control production and those who provide labor

Max Weber- a founder of modern sociology, conflict theory, includes other conflicts like political and social status, social mobility is important factor considering inequality

symbolic interactionism

people act towards things based on interpretation and meaning, which is derived from social interaction

symbols- cultural derived objects that have shared meaning, maintained through social interaction and language, micro-level

George Mead- founder of social psychology, symbolic interactionism

self- developed through language, play, and games
generalized other- organized attitude of social group

"I"- subject, autonomous self, spontaneous, individuality
"me"- object, social self, conforming, internalized social expectations

social stigma- disapproval of a deviant attribute or behavior, labelling theory

looking-glass self- self is shaped by our perception of how other people perceive us, we internalize stigma

social constructionism

reality is socially constructed, concepts differ by cultures

objects are embedded with the social values of people who create or interact with them

socialization- individual internalizes values, beliefs, norms of society, how social constructs are maintained over time

agents of socialization- popular culture, family, schools
macro and micro-level

rational choice theory

compare costs and benefits of courses of action, must anticipate outcomes

methodological individualism- all social realities are result of individual actions

micro-level

social exchange theory

assign benefits and costs to interactions, prefer those with greatest personal benefit

applies rational choice theory to relationships
micro-level

feminist theory (3)

first wave- suffrage, own property, rights within marriage

second wave- sexual rights, liberation, resist patriarchy

third wave- addressing non-white, not-rich communities, intersectionality

ex: wage gap, glass ceiling

micro and micro-level

social institution

standardized set of social norms organized to preserve a basic societal value

education, family, religion, government, economy, health and medicine

education

"great equalizer"

terms:

1. hidden curriculum- latent function, teaching norms, values, beliefs, ex: pictures of scientists are males
2. educational segregation- wealthy neighborhoods have better schools
3. educational stratification- inequalities are perpetuated by education (poor kids go to bad schools, worse teachers, less parent involvement, can't afford college)
4. teacher expectancy- teachers form expectations of kids and act differently towards them (stereotypes)

family

functions:

1. child rearing, identity formation
2. socialization, cultural transmission
3. affection
4. protection
5. social status, reputation

terms:

1. nuclear and extended family
2. monogamy and polygamy (polygyny, polyandry)
3. endogamy and exogamy
4. primary, secondary, tertiary kinship
5. bilateral, patrilineal, matrilineal descent
6. patriarchy, matriarchy, egalitarian
7. family violence (child, domestic, elder abuse)

religion

social cohesion/dissent, values, morals

organizations:

1. ecclesia- dominant religion, integrated into government
2. church- large religion, integrated into society
3. sect- small religion, separate from society
4. cult- different lifestyle, all religions started as cults

religions:

1. Christianity- large faith
2. Islam- religion and state connected
3. Hinduism- polytheistic, reincarnation
4. Buddhism- meditation, overcome material pleasures
5. Sikhism- monotheistic
6. Judaism- Israel connects religion and state

terms:

1. modernization- transform traditional structures to more rational ones, religion has moved from public to private
2. secularization and fundamentalism
3. religiosity- extent that religion influences a person, through tradition, doctrine, practice, and spirituality

government

rules of society, relations with other societies

terms:

1. authority (rational-legal, traditional, charismatic)
2. aristarchic government (aristocracies or meritocracies)
3. autocratic government (dictatorship or fascism)
4. monarchic government (absolute or constitutional)
5. authoritarian government (control, totalitarianism)
6. democratic government (direct or representational)
7. oligarchic government (can elect, no voice, theocracies)
8. republican, federalist, parliamentary, presidential gov

economy

terms:

1. command, market, mixed economies
2. socialism and communism
3. capitalism, welfare capitalism, state capitalism
4. division of labor and professions
5. mechanical and organic solidarity

medicine

promote health, total well-being of its people

physical vs. mental illness
Western medicine- illness is imbalance, can be treated
Other places- weak, punishment, spiritual

scientific vs. holistic medicine
patients physical environment and background are important

levels of healthcare (4)

primary- first point of contact
secondary- specialists
tertiary- in-patient care, surgery
quartenary- rare surgeries

medicalization (2)

human conditions reconceptualized as medical conditions

ex: physician will speak on social issues like drug addiction and depression

medical model of disease- ultimate cause of illness is biological

social model of disease- proximate causes of illnesses include class, status, environment

social epidemiology

study social determinants of health, features and pathways

social condition- favorable ones include food, drugs, shelter, support

food dessert- hard to find healthy food

wealthy are least likely to have diseases

sick role (3)

rights- exempt from social roles, not your fault
obligation- try to get well, seek treatment

illness experience

types:

1. conditional- illness is temporary
2. unconditionally legitimate- illness is incurable
3. illegitimate- illness is stigmatized

social status (3)

master status- role or position that best describes your general place in society

ascribed status- assigned by society regardless of effort

achieved status- one that is earned

role (3)

socially defined expectation about how you will behave based on status

role conflict- two statuses are in conflict, being on call and misses child's birthday

role strain- conflicting expectations for single role, study and social life

role exit- transition from one role to another, premed to medical

groups (10)

group- people who identify and interact

aggregate- people who exist in same space but don't identify or interact

category- people who identify but don't interact

primary group- smaller, personal, long-term, expressive functions: goal is to maintain the relationship itself

secondary group- larger, impersonal, short-term, instrumental functions: accomplish a specific goal

in group- group that person belongs to, you prefer themF

out group- group that person does not identify with

reference group- group that person compares self to

smaller groups are less stable, more intimate (dyad = 2)
larger groups are more stable, less intimate (triad = 3)

organizations (3)

large group with common purpose

3 types:

1. utilitarian- motivated by incentive or reward
2. normative- motivated by common cause or belief
3. coercive- forced to join

must be a group with identifiable membership engaging in concerted action to achieve common purpose, different from political change

social network- web of social relationships

bureaucracy and rationalization (4)

manage public services, rules and laws, simplify complex functioning of organizations

rationalization- tasks are broken down to component parts to be more efficient

McDonaldization- principles of fast-food industry dominate other aspects of society (in our personal lives too), chain mentality, efficiency and control

Weber's ideal bureaucracy- hierarchical structure, division of labor, written rules, officials hired on expertise, neutrality

iron law of oligarchy- all organizations will inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, democracy is impossible

value

culturally approved concept about right/wrong, desirable/undesirable

belief

specific ideas that people feel are true, values support beliefs

how people believe they became ill, how they will be cured, who should make medical decisions, proactive about own care

stigmas, traditional medicine, etc.

ritual (2)

formalism, tradition, sacral symbolism and performance, white coat ceremony

symbol- cultural representations of reality, stethoscope

language- most powerful symbol, continuity and identify in culture, medical terminology

culture (6)

material- concrete, visible, objects

nonmaterial- symbolic culture, values, beliefs

dominant culture- group in the majority or wield more power, South Africa whites were not majority though

subculture- group different from dominant culture, Amish, hipsters

counterculture- subculture that opposes dominant culture, KKK, Mafia

multiculturalism- pluralism, equal standing for all cultures

cultural lag

culture takes time to catch up to technology, causes social problems

nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than material culture

stem cell research, CRISPR

culture shock

disorientation when experiencing unfamiliar way of life, new social environment

problems include: information overload, language barriers, skill gap

reverse culture shock- returning to initial environment

assimilation and amalgamation

assimilation- person's culture comes to resemble dominant group

amalgamation- majority and minorities combine to form a unique cultural group

ethnocentrism and cultural relativism

ethnocentrism- judge by standards of own culture, belief in inherent superiority of one own culture or ethnic group

culture relativism- judge by standards of other cultures, an individual beliefs should be understood in terms of that individual's specific culture

popular culture

mainstream of Western culture today, influenced by mass media

evolution and culture

culture is product of evolution, intentionally taught and spread, greater adaptability reflects decreased influence of genetics and increased importance of learning and social interactions in transmitting behavioral adaptation

Papua, New Guinea- eat brains of decreased to help them live on, people evolved resistance gene to prion disease

cultural transmission/diffusion

cultural transmission- method of passing on culture within a society across generations, learning through experience

cultural diffusion- spread of culture from one group to another, Kpop

population growth

populations rise until overpopulation at carrying capacity, then level off to population equilibrium

population pyramids- male/female population by age group, wide base means high birth rate and high death rate

birth/death rates

crude birth rate- births per 1000 people per year
crude death rate- deaths per 1000 people per year

fertility- ability of woman to reproduce
fecundity- reproductive capacity for woman

general fertility rate- births per 1000 women per year
total fertility rate- births per 1 woman
replacement fertility rate- rate that allows population to remain balanced, 2.1 kids
sub-replacement fertility rate- birth rate less than death rate

population-lag effect- total fertility rate not reflected in birth rate for a few generations

mortality, morbidity (prevalence, incidence)
case fatality rate- deaths per disease
infant mortality rate- deaths per 1000 infants per year

migration

nomadism- non-permanent travel

external migration- between countries
internal migration- within a country

voluntary migration, involuntary migration

settles, refugees, colonization

immigration, emigration, reverse migration- return to home

push factor- bad things about place you are leaving
pull factor- good things about place you are going to

urbanization

decrease in rural population, increase in urban population

social geography- studies spatial distribution of groups

rural flight- decreased emphasis on agriculture causes people to leave rural areas

suburbanization

population growth on fringes of urban areas

urban sprawl- people leaving cities

white flight- white people leaving cities

urban blight- parts of cities degrade as a result of urban decline, increased poverty and crime there

gentrification

a form of urban renewal, so rich people can move into city

4 components:

1. displacement of lower income residents
2. increase neighborhood stratification
3. expanded tax base
4. less affordable housing

theories of population change

demographic transition- industrialization causes lower death rates first, then lower birth rates

Malthusian theory- population growth will exceed resource growth, causing a Malthusian catastrophe where population is reduced by famine

positive checks- raise death rate, disease, war, hunger

preventative checks- lower birth rate, abstinence, birth control, same-sex relationships

demography

study of human population dynamics

dominant groups- have social power to assign label

minorities- receive differential treatment

age, gender, race, sexual orientation, immigration status

age

age cohorts- cohort studies follow group of subjects that are the same age (longitudinal study)

Baby boomers- post-WW2 population growth, accounts for increasing elderly population today
Silent generation-
GI generation-

population aging- disproportionate amount of older people, focus more on older people problems

social aging- individuals experience complex emotional and social changes, affect well-being

life course theory- biological and social factors earlier in life affect outcomes later in life

social significance of aging:

1. rite of passages- take on more personal responsibility
2. Western cultures see aging as undesirable
3. retirement homes vs. caring for parents
4. dependency ratio- economically dependent members to economically productive members

gender identity

sex- biological male (XY), female (XX), intersex (XXY, etc.)
gender- masculine, feminine

gender schema- fit the gender norms of culture
gender script- certain behaviors in a certain situation

social construction of gender:

1. gender roles- social expectations

2. gender expression- external manifestations

3. sexism- women are subordinate

4. gender segregation- often separated in spaces based on sex, not gender

5. gender fluidity, variant, queer, transexual, non-conforming all describe a spectrum

6. toddlers, learn about defined characteristics, toys and colors

7. consolidation between 5-7, gender identity becomes rigid

8. fluidity returns, influenced more by peers than parents

race/ethnicity

race- group shares biological traits
ethnicity- group shares cultural, historical experiences

you cannot change either

social construction of race:

1. external influences shape racial identity
2. ethnicity is not restricted to race
3. racism- dominant group superior to minorities
4. ethnogenesis- tribes separate into independent groups

racial formation- race is not biological, but constructed through social and economic forces, (Obama isn't black, he just disrupted our racial expectations)

racialization- dominant group gives racial labels to groups that do not relate to those labels, creating Jewish ethnicity

Nigrescence model- pre-encounter (naive), encounter, immersion (resent whites), internalization, commitment (social justice)

sexual orientation

sexual orientations:

1. heterosexual- towards opposite gender/sex
2. homosexual- towards same gender/sex
3. bisexual- towards both gender/sex, can be unequal
4. pansexual- towards both gender/sex equally
5. asexual- lack of sexual attraction

Kinsey scale- scale of homo (6) to hetero (0)

immigration status

periods of immigration:

1. colonial period- English colonists during 17th, 18th century
2. north Europe in mid-19th century
3. southern and eastern Europe in early 20th century
4. Asia and Latin America in present (in order: Mexico, China, Philippines, India)

immigration controls- policies that restrict legal immigration, disadvantages poor migrants

social integration- nativity status determines how much social stratification you have experienced, negative correlation between assimilation and health, native-born minorities members experience more inequality than recent immigrants

globalization

factors contributing to globalization:

1. telecommunications- speed up connections
2. economic interdependence- some countries have demand for a product without means of production

theories:

1. world systems theory- core countries (developed), periphery countries (developing, resource dependent, weak government), semi-periphery countries
2. modernization theory- 1 path from traditional to modernization that all countries go through
3. dependency theory- poor countries are integrated into economy as an underdeveloped country, cannot develop

perspectives:
hyperglobalist- globalization is good, borders are gone
skeptical- still localized, countries still important
transformationalist- stuff has changed, outcomes are not known

consequences:

1. organizations- UN, NGOs fight for international causes
2. terrorism- war on terror
3. civil unrest- collective behavior, social media
4. convergence theory- globalization leads to a united global culture

social movement

two opposing groups develop that promote and resist change

relative deprivation- do not have resources that they expect for their social position, pushes people to participate in movement if standard means don't work

life expectancy

medicine, research, clean water, education, nutrition, etc.

drug companies don't develop for infectious diseases because poor people can't pay for it

poverty (3)

absolute- inability to secure basic necessities of life

relative- inability to meet average standard of living defined by society

marginal- due to unemployment

socioeconomic status

social standing, combines education, income, and occupation

three Ps: prestige, power, property

rich can influence politics, education, and pass down wealth to children

3 social classes:

1. upper class- top 3% that earn millions
2. middle class- 40% who earn above $46k
3. working class- 30% who earn $19-45k
4. lower class- 27% who earn less

spatial inequality (2)

residential segregation:

1. physical separation of groups along race or SES
2. Chicago is racially segregated, highest concentration of violence in poor areas

environmental injustice:

1. low SES, minority groups live in areas where environmental hazards are high
2. toxic waste dumps, pollution, facilities

social stratification (3)

caste system- lower social mobility, defined by birth

class system- some social mobility, birth and merit

meritocracy- higher social mobility, merit, myth of opportunity

social mobility (3)

vertical mobility- moving up or down in social stratification, usually getting a better/worse job

horizontal mobility- change in occupation or role within group but maintains income, usually getting a different job or getting disability insurance

can be intragenerational or intergenerational- more long-term descriptions

social reproduction- social inequality is transmitted from generations

capital (3)

physical capital- money, property
cultural capital- what you know, education
social capital- whom you know, networks

class/false consciousness

class consciousness- active awareness of own social class

false consciousness- do not recognize class relations

intersectionality

how different identities intersect within individuals, producing unique inequalities

ex: black and lesbian cannot be analyzed separately

health disparities

socioeconomic gradient in health- SES positively correlates with health, since SES affects type of diet, labor, hazards, ability to pay, etc.

gender:

1. men utilize resources less
2. most research is done on male subjects
3. women treated less aggressively
4. dosages are for men

race:

1. minorities have higher disease risk
2. yea its bad out there homes

healthcare accessibility/availability

availability- presence

accessibility- obtain

social exclusion (2)

social segregation- external factors separate groups, so some are pushed to the fringes and get less resources

social isolation- voluntary separation from society, Mormons

social support (2)

one is cared for and member of social network, important for stress management, physical health

buffering hypothesis- protective layer creating psychological distance between person and stressful events

direct effects hypothesis- social support provides better health and wellness, means better able to manage stress

personal/social identity

personal- attributes that you consider integral to who you are, subjective

social- socially defined attributes, on a census, objective

self-concepts (4)

self-concept- self-identity, beliefs about who you are, includes both personal and social identity

self-schema- ideas about yourself, used to organize information relevant to you, based on past experiences, like I'm smart

self-efficacy- how good you think you are at something, various between tasks

self-esteem- belief about self-worth, you determine which aspect of identity is most important for your self-esteem

locus of control (2)

internal- you have control, but uncontrollable internal factors like personality do exist

external- you do not have control

learned helplessness

individual possesses low self-efficacy, external locus of control

Seligman study- dogs exposed to electric shock with no chance of escape

Roger's selves (2)

ideal self- who you want to be

real self- who you are

incongruity- real self falls short of ideal self

social behaviorism

looking-glass self- self is shaped by our perception of how other people perceive us

generalized other- behavioral expectations of society

component of symbolic interactionism

role-taking (5)

social perspective taking, understanding other point of views

egocentric role (level 0)- no differentiation means cannot distinguish perspective, no integration means cannot relate perspectives

subjective role (level 1)- differentiation, no integration

self-reflective role (level 2)- poor integration

mutual role taking- integration

social role

social comparison theory

all have drive to gain accurate self-evaluations, identity shaped by comparison with reference groups

dramaturgical perspective (4)

from symbolic interactionism, we have front stage self and back stage self

defines how we manifest our sense of self in social world

impression management- self-presentation, we try to influence the perception others have of us

self-handicapping- we create obstacles and excuses to avoid blame

emotional expression (3)

nonverbal communication- facial cues and body language communicate emotions

factors:

1. introverts are better at reading emotional cues
2. women are better at reading emotional cues, greater emotional response/expression except for anger
3. Western cultures encourage emotional expression

animal communication (4)

warning colors- warning to predators of toxin

mimicry- pretends to be another organism

pheromones- chemical messengers for warning and mating

mating behaviors- colors, songs, dances

social norms (4)

folkway- standard of behavior socially approved but not morally significant, etiquette

more- strict norm that controls moral behavior

taboo- vehemently prohibited, considered morally reprehensible

anomie- lack of social norms causes disconnect between individual and community

sanctions (2)

social rewards or punishment for behaviors

formal- reward, punishment

informal- recognition, stigma

deviance (3)

violation of social norms, results in social sanction:

1. legal sanction- formal deviance
2. stigmatization- informal deviance, disapproval of a deviant attribute or behavior

3 theories on deviance:

1. differential association- learning deviant behaviors from environment and communities (fails to consider individuals)
2. labeling theory- society labels people as deviant, they then become deviant, allow dominant power to control (fails to consider individuals)
3. structural strain theory- structures not adequate for achieving goals, so pursue deviance (fails to account for behaviors with no purpose)

collective behavior (4)

4 types:

1. crowds- group with shared purpose, terms: herd behavior, panic, mob
2. publics- group discussing same issue, share ideas
3. masses- common interest, not physically close
4. social movements- active and expressive movements

3 examples:

1. fad- short craze driven by media, trends are longer
2. mass hysteria- delusion of threat
3. riots- they are usually rational

social facilitation/loafing

social facilitation- presence of others improves performance, only works for simple tasks

social loafing- people in groups exert less effort and are less creative than if they were working independently

depends on if evaluation is present

Hawthorne effect

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed

social desirability- people provide socially acceptable answers in front of others

deindividuation

high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility, we lose identity and form mob mentality

factors that allow for deindividuation:

1. larger groups
2. physical anonymity
3. arousing activities

bystander effect- diffusion of responsibility in Kitty murder, people less likely to receive help the more people there are

peer pressure

peer groups are close in age or share interests affect short term interests only, influence development, can be positive (stop bullying) or negative (bullying)

behavior is normalized since other people do it

groupthink

desire for harmony and minimize conflict results in members ignoring alternative views and making bad decisions

more likely when group strongly believes in something or is overly optimistic, people pressured to censor own opinion

mindguarding- censor self, prevent dissenting opinions

similar to confirmation bias in individuals

encourage critical evaluation and dissent to avoid groupthink

group polarization

opinions become more extreme in a group

two factors:

1. informational influence- strong evidence is brought up
2. normative influence- strong stances are socially more desirable to be in a particular group

conformity and obedience (2)

Asch experiment:

1. how tall are lines, confederates answer incorrectly
2. influences subjects to conform to wrong answer
3. 1/3 conformed and answered incorrectly

Milgram experiment:

1. learner and teacher roles
2. experiment tells teacher to give shocks
3. 65% administered shocks to highest level, no difference between males and females

social influences of behavior (5):

influences:

1. informational influence- need to be right, leads to private acceptance
2. normative influence- need to be liked, leads to compliance

behaviors:

1. compliance- desire for rewards and punishment, no private acceptance
2. identification- desire to be in a group, no private acceptance
3. internalization- private acceptance

persuasion

message characteristics- logic, grammar, length

source characteristics- expertise, trustworthiness, journal

target characteristics- self-esteem, intelligence

elaboration-likelihood model

central route- people are persuaded by content of argument, high motivation to think about message, lasting persuasion

peripheral route- people are persuaded by superficial characteristics of source, low motivation to think about message, temporary persuasion

persuasion techniques

foot-in-the-door- ask for small request first, get compliance, then ask for larger request

door-in-the-face- ask for large request first, get denied, then ask for smaller request

low-ball technique- gain compliance with lower cost, then changing to a higher cost

gain compliance with lower cost, then changing to a higher cost

ingratiation technique- gain compliance by gaining personal approval first

norm of reciprocity- more likely to comply with request from someone who has done us a favor in the past

bases of power

legitimate power- position
referent power- charisma
expert power- expertise
reward power- reward
coercive power- punishment

attraction (3)

forms social and romantic relationships

3 characteristics:

1. proximity- mere exposure effect
2. appearance- symmetry, youthful women, mature men
3. similarity- common values, beliefs, interests

aggression (3)

frustration-aggression principle- when someone is blocked from achieving goal, anger and aggression is triggered

factors influence aggression- frustration, pain, past situations that promoted aggression, some genetic factors
hostile aggression- strong emotions, impulsive, goal is to harm the other person

instrumental aggression- goal-oriented, predatory, planned to obtain something else

attachment

interaction is essential for development

Harlow experiment with baby monkeys showed that they preferred soft cloth surrogate mother over bare wire with bottle mother, shows that attachment to mother is not based on need for food

Ainsworth experiment with toddlers showed that securely attached toddlers are happy with mother, cry when she leaves, consoled when she returns

insecure attachment (4)

Ainsworth experiment

secure attachment- toddlers are happy with mother, cry when she leaves, consoled when she returns

ambivalent attachment- toddler cries when mother leaves, remain upset even when she returns

avoidant attachment- toddler does nothing when mother leaves or returns, but is internally stressed out

indifferent attachment- fluctuates between avoidant and ambivalent

animal behavior

foraging- search for food, use observational learning to conserve energy

assortative mating- nonrandom mating where similar organisms mate more frequently

inclusive fitness- improve genetic success through altruistic behavior, sacrificing self for family

game theory- predict behavior of large group of organisms

attribution theory (3)

dispositional attribution- internal causes of behavior

situational attribution- external causes of behavior

factors for attribution:

1. distinctiveness (does he behave similarly in other situations)
2. consensus (does he behave like other people)
3. consistency (does he behave similarly in same situation)

attribution bias (8)

fundamental attribution error- attribute other's behavior to internal factors

actor/observer bias- attribute own actions to the situational factors, attribute others actions to internal factors

ultimate attribution error- attribute out group's negative behavior to internal factors, attribute in group's negative behavior to external factors, and vice versa for positive

self-serving bias- attribute success to ourselves, failure to others

optimism bias- bad things happen to other people, but not us

just world belief- people get what they deserve

halo effect- impression impacts assumptions about overall character

physical attractiveness stereotype- type of halo effect, attractive people are good people

social perception

social cognition- process information about impressions and judgements about others

false consensus- falsely assume everyone agrees with us

projection bias- assume others have same belief as us

Thomas theorem

the objective reality of a situation doesn't matter as much as someone's perception of what someone believes is happening

homophily/heterophily

homophily- tend to associate with similar people

heterophily- tend to associate with diverse people