empire to republic

- The Sabine population neighbored Rome.

- Romulus invited various populations to Rome for a gathering, where then the Roman men abducted the Sabine women.

- The need of the Sabine women was to provide wives for the Roman males so they can produce offspring, given that in the Roman population there was an absence of women.

Analysis: This shows the mark of Rome's beginning of development into the city of what it is now.

- Roman maiden who escaped and Etruscan camp and swam through the Tiber River.

- The Etruscan king praised the maiden and granted her part of the hostages that she choose

- A statue depicting her on a horse was made in honor of her bravery in saving hostages from the camp.

Analysis: This shows that Roman society valued courage, and honored those who served the Republic, even if they were women.

- First imperial forum; it was placed near Caesar's place of birth.

- The forum was inaugurated in 46 BCE and was completed by Augustus in 29 BCE

- The Temple of Venus Genetrix was built a part of the Forum.

Analysis: This shows how the dimensions, decorations, and style of the Forum expresses how Caesar

expresses his power and his divine ancestry [which is what the Temple of Venus Genetrix was built in honor for].

- The Forum was built between 42-2 BC.

- It had a fire wall made out of peperine, gabine and travertine to isolate the Forum from the Suburra [Roman slums]

- One of its main functions was that it was a center for military discussions, such that young descendants coming of age of great Roman families would register themselves on the military roles.

Analysis: This shows a demonstration of Augustus' power through a larger amount compared to Caesar's, which was a propaganda strategy to show his connection to Caesar to make the public trust him more.

- He is the legendary founder of Rome.

- Ordered the abduction of the Sabine Women to secure wives for his people, so the population would grow.

- Assassinated his brother Remus after an augury said that he should have founded Rome on the Palatine.

Analysis: This shows Romulus' symbolism of how violence and diplomacy were both used to establish Roman identity.

Numa Pomplius

- He brought Rome 43 years of peace full of cultural and religious growth.

- Founded Roman religious institutes and moved the Vestal Virgins to Rome.

- Added January and February to the calendar.

Analysis: This shows Numa's impact on Rome's cultural and religious growth

Ancus Martius

- He was the grandson of Numa.

- He conquered nearby Latin cities.

- He founded the port of Ostia.

Analysis: This shows how Ancus balanced war and religion, reinforcing Rome's dual identity as sacred and strong.

L. Tarquinus Priscus

- First Etruscan King of Rome.

- Expanded the Senate and started Roman Games.

- Began major constructions such as the temple of Jupiter and the Cloaca Maxima.

Analysis: This shows how Tarquinius Priscus brought urbanization and Etruscan influence to Rome.

Servius Tullius

- He conducted Rome's first census.

- He divided citizens into tribes and classes.

- He reorganized the military based on wealth.

Analysis: This shows how Servius built the foundation of Roman social and political structure through class organization.

Tarquinus Superbus

- He ruled as a tyrant.

- He came to power by killing Servius Tullius.

- Brutus and the Senate overthrew him.

Analysis: This shows how Tarquin's downfall illustrates Rome's rejection of tyranny and its shift toward republican values.

She wolf fresco

- The fresco shows a she-wolf nursing the twins Romulus and Remus.

- By legend, the wolf found and saved the twins after they had been abandoned in the Tiber River.

- Romulus later founded Rome after killing Remus in a dispute.

- This story helped build pride in Rome.

Analysis: This shows how the she-wolf represents Rome's mythical origins and reinforces Roman values of strength, survival, and divine destiny.

- The Horatii were Roman brothers and the Curiatii were three brothers from Alba Longa.

- Even though only 1 Horatii brother survived, he managed to slay all 3 of the Curiatii brothers.

- Given that the Horatii were victorious, Rome was able to conquer Alba Longa.

Analysis: This shows how the Horatii's victory marked a moment of great pride for Rome making the population believe they were the fiercest and strongest.

Roman Forum

- Served as a marketplace, a meeting place for political discussions, and also important for religious ceremonies.

- The forum of caesar was an extension of the roman forum

- Julius Caesar's funeral was held at the Roman Forum

Analysis: This shows the dedication of rulers to the development of the city, building a multi-functional space and markets for the citizens.

- He conquered Gaul in an almost 10-year campaign

- Through civil wars, he gained dictatorial powers over Rome.

- Was a part of the first triumvirate alongside Pompey and Crassus

Analysis: This shows why he is considered such an influential leader; he proved his power and military capability to the people.

Augustus

- Urged to fight against Caesar's murderers.

- Was a part of the second triumvirate alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus

- Defeated Mark Anthony to then become Emperor of Rome

Analysis: Shows how, in Roman times, one needed to win power and prove oneself worthy to the citizens.

- By legend, Lucretia, a noblewoman, was raped by Sextus Tarquinius, the son of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.

- Lucretia was widely regarded as an ideal Roman woman: modest, loyal, and virtuous.

- Lucretia's story was used to promote republican values and oppose tyranny. Her fate showcases the risks of kingship, highlighting Rome's strength as a republic.

Analysis: This shows how her rape marked the end of the Monarchy, and the transition into the Republic.

Secession of the Plebs

- Plebeians withdrew from Rome to protest political inequality and debt slavery

- The protest forced patricians to negotiate, which led to the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs

- It marked the first major step in the conflict of the Orders between patricians and plebeians.

Analysis: This shows how the Secession of the Plebs' unified power brought the Romans to eventually listen and make amends to make the republic more fair for the plebians.

Map showing the route of the Via Appia, Rome's first road

- The Via Appia connected Rome to the southern city of Brundisium.

- It was begun in 312 BCE by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus.

- It was used to move Roman troops, goods, and information efficiently.

Analysis: The Via Appia helped unify and control the Republic by improving communication, military movement, and trade between Rome and its distant territories.

Remains of the Aqua Claudia in Rome

- The Aqua Claudia was one of Rome's major aqueducts, begun under Emperor Caligula and completed by Claudius

- It transported fresh water from distant sources into the city of Rome

- Its massive stone arches still stand today, showcasing Rome's strong engineering

Analysis: The Aqua Claudia reflects how Roman infrastructure supported urban growth and public health, reinforcing Rome's power through technological innovation

A Roman road in modern-day Turkey, near Tarsus

- This road was part of Rome's extensive network linking provinces across the empire

- Built with durable stone layers, Roman roads were engineered for longevity and efficiency

- Tarsus was an important city in the eastern Roman provinces, connected to key trade and military routes

Analysis: This shows how the road represents Rome's connection to distant lands, in order to improve their army and trade.

Cicero Denounces Catiline

- The painting shows the Roman Senate, with Cicero standing to address the assembly

- The man seated alone is Catiline, accused of plotting to overthrow the Republic

- The senators' body language shows their rejection of Catiline and support for Cicero

Analysis: This shows how Rome struggled when personal ambition threatened its republican values, furthermore highlighting how persuasive speech and public shaming were powerful tools in Roman politics

Pompeian Electoral Grafitti

- This wall writing is an example of political campaign graffiti from ancient Pompeii

- Citizens used these inscriptions to support candidates in local elections

- The Latin text often includes the name of the candidate and their qualifications

Analysis: This shows how Roman citizens actively engaged in public politics, using walls as a democratic space for opinion and support, revealing political culture even in smaller towns

- Pompey was a successful Roman general and statesman during the late Republic

- He formed the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Crassus

- He was eventually defeated by Caesar in a civil war and fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated under Ptolemy's order

Analysis: Pompey's rise and fall shows how elite rivalries and personal ambition contributed to the collapse of the Roman Republic

- Marc Antony was a top general and loyal supporter of Julius Caesar

- After Caesar's assassination, he formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus

- His political and romantic alliance with Cleopatra led to conflict with Octavian, he later committed suicide

Analysis: Marc Antony's rivalry with Octavian and alignment with Cleopatra deepened divisions within Rome, culminating into the Final War of the Roman Republic and accelerating the transition to imperial rule

Bridge across the Ruibcon

- In 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, defying Roman law

- The Senate had ordered Caesar to disband his troops and return to Rome alone

- Caesar's crossing led directly to the outbreak of the Second Civil War against Pompey

Analysis: The crossing of the Rubicon marked a deliberate challenge to senatorial power, furthermore expressing Caesar's bravery

Battle of Pharsalus

- The battle was fought between Caesar and Pompey during the Second Civil War

- Despite being outnumbered, Caesar strategically defeated

Pompey's larger senatorial army

- After his defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated upon arrival

Analysis: This shows how the Battle of Pharsalus marked a turning point in the Second Civil War, solidifying Caesar's dominance and accelerating the collapse of the Roman Republic's senatorial power

- Cleopatra VII was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt

- She had political and romantic alliances with both Julius Caesar and Marc Antony

- After her defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, she committed suicide in 30 BCE

Analysis: Cleopatra's influence over Roman leaders intensified power struggles in Rome, and her downfall marked the end of both Egypt's independence and the Roman Republic, paving the way for Augustus's rise as Rome's first emperor

- Crassus was one of the wealthiest men in Roman history and gained fame by defeating Spartacus in 71 BCE

- He formed the First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey to dominate Roman politics

- He died in 53 BCE during a failed military campaign in the Battle of Carrhae

Analysis: Crassus's death removed the balance of power in the First Triumvirate, building rivalry between Caesar and Pompey directly contributing to the outbreak of the Second Civil War

- Sulla was a Roman general and statesman who marched on Rome twice

- He became dictator in 82 BCE and used prohibitions to eliminate political enemies

- He reconstructed the Roman constitution to strengthen the Senate's power

Analysis: This shows how he took control by force, breaking Rome's republican rules, showing later leaders, like Julius Caesar, that power could be seized through military strength.

- Lepidus was a member of the Second Triumvirate alongside Octavian and Mark Antony

- He controlled parts of North Africa but was politically sidelined by his allies.

- He was eventually stripped of power by Octavian and forced retirement

Analysis: Lepidus' treatment within the triumvirate illustrates how shifting alliances and ambition shaped the end of the Roman Republic, leaving Octavian and Antony compete for control.

- Cicero strongly opposed the First Triumvirate's domination of Roman politics.

- He supported the authority of the Senate and resisted Caesar's growing power

- Caesar attempted to win Cicero's support, but Cicero remained independent and critical.

Analysis: Cicero's resistance to the Triumvirate reflects the deepening divide between republican traditionalists and rising autocrats.