Results for "vesicles"

NEUS 609 - Neurotransmitter Release

NEUS 609 - Structure of synapses

Cell Organelles Study Notes (Vesicles, Peroxisomes, Lysosomes, Mitochondria)

chapter 10.1 case study, inhibition of Streptococcus mutans biofilms with bacterial- derived outer membrane vesicles

Brain Vesicles

Prostate Gland & Seminal Vesicles

Prostate Gland & Seminal Vesicles - Chapter 19

L13 - Vesicular transport 1 - COPII coated vesicles

Vesicles and Secretion 2

Vesicles and Secretion

Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicles

Exam 3: synapses & vesicles, receptors, neurotransmitters, auditory system, case study

Quiz 4 Synapses & vesicles, receptors

Synapses & Vesicles

Lecture 3-10: Organelles and trafficking of proteins and vesicles

1. Hyperemesis Gravidarum/ Pernicious Vomiting Definition: Excessive nausea and vomiting during pregnancy, extending beyond week 12 or causing dehydration, ketonuria, and significant weight loss within the first 12 weeks. Incidence: 1 in 200-300 women Cause: Unknown, but may be associated with increased thyroid function and Helicobacter pylori infection. Signs and Symptoms: • Decreased urine output • Weight loss • Ketonuria • Dry mucous membranes • Poor skin turgor • Elevated hematocrit • Decreased sodium, potassium, and chloride levels • Polyneuritis (in some cases) Assessment: • Hemoglobin: Elevated hematocrit concentration (hemoconcentration) due to inability to retain fluids. • Electrolytes: Decreased sodium, potassium, and chloride levels due to low intake. • Acid-base Balance: Hypokalemic alkalosis (severe vomiting, prolonged period). • Neurological Examination: Polyneuritis due to B vitamin deficiency. Effects (if left untreated): • Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR): Dehydration and inability to provide nutrients for fetal growth. • Preterm birth: Due to complications caused by the condition. • Prolonged hospitalization/home care: Resulting in social isolation. Therapeutic Management: • Fluid and Electrolyte Management: Monitor input and output, blood chemistry to prevent dehydration. • Nutritional Support: Withhold oral food and fluids (usually) and administer total parenteral nutrition (TPN). • Intravenous Fluid Replacement: 3000 ml Ringer's lactate with added vitamin B to increase hydration. • Antiemetic Medication: Metoclopramide (Reglan) to control vomiting. 2. Ectopic Pregnancy Definition: Implantation of a fertilized egg outside the uterine cavity (ovary, cervix, fallopian tube - most common). Incidence: Second most frequent cause of bleeding during the first trimester. Causes: • Obstruction of the fallopian tube: ◦ Adhesions (from previous infection like chronic salpingitis or pelvic inflammatory disease). ◦ Congenital malformations. ◦ Scars from tubal surgery. ◦ Uterine tumor pressing on the proximal end of the tube. ◦ Current use of an intrauterine device (IUD). Signs and Symptoms: • Missed period/amenorrhea. • Positive hCG test. • Sharp, stabbing pain in the lower abdominal quadrants and pelvic pain (at time of rupture). • Scant vaginal spotting/bleeding. • Rigid abdomen (from peritoneal irritation). • Leukocytosis (increased WBC count due to trauma). • Decreased blood pressure and increased pulse rate (signs of shock). • Cullen's sign (bluish tinge around the umbilicus). • Tender mass palpable in the cul-de-sac of Douglas (vaginal exam). • Falling hCG or serum progesterone level (suggesting the pregnancy has ended). • No gestational sac on ultrasound. Therapeutic Management: • Non-ruptured Ectopic Pregnancy: Oral administration of methotrexate followed by leucovorin. • Ruptured Ectopic Pregnancy (emergency): Laparoscopy to ligate bleeding vessels and remove or repair the damaged fallopian tube. 3. Hydatidiform Mole (H-mole)/ Gestational Trophoblastic Disease/ Molar Pregnancy Definition: A gestational anomaly of the placenta consisting of a bunch of clear vesicles resembling grapes. This neoplasm is formed from the swelling of the chorionic villi, resulting from a fertilized egg whose nucleus is lost, and the sperm nucleus duplicates, producing a diploid number 46XX. Incidence: Approximately 1 in every 1500 pregnancies. Risk Factors: • Low socioeconomic group (decreased protein intake). • Women under 18 or over 35 years old. • Women of Asian heritage. • Receiving clomiphene citrate (Clomid) for induced ovulation. Types of Molar Growth: • Complete/Classic H-mole: All trophoblastic villi swell and become cystic. No embryonic or fetal tissue present. High risk for malignancy. • Partial/Incomplete H-mole: Some of the villi form normally. Presence of fetal or embryonic tissue. Low risk for malignancy. Signs and Symptoms: • Uterus expands faster than normal. • No fetal heart sounds heard. • Serum or urine test for hCG strongly positive. • Early signs of preeclampsia. • Vaginal bleeding (dark-brown spotting or profuse fresh flow). • Discharge of fluid-filled vesicles. Diagnosis: • Ultrasound. • Chest x-ray (lung metastasis). • Amniocentesis (no fluid). • Hysteroscopy (via cervix). Management: • Evacuation of the mole: Dilation and curettage (D&C). • Blood transfusion. • Hysterectomy (in some cases). • Monitoring hCG levels: Every 2 weeks until normal. • Contraception: Reliable method for 12 months to prevent confusion with a new pregnancy. 4. Premature Cervical Dilatation/ Incompetent Cervix Definition: Premature dilation of the cervix, usually occurring around week 20, when the fetus is too immature to survive. Incidence: About 1% of pregnancies. Causes: • Increased maternal age. • Congenital structural defects. • Trauma to the cervix (cone biopsy, repeated D&C). Signs and Symptoms: • Painless dilation of the cervix. • Pink-stained vaginal discharge. • Increased pelvic pressure. • Rupture of membranes and discharge of amniotic fluid. Therapeutic Management: • Cervical cerclage: Surgical procedure to prevent loss of the child due to premature dilation. • Bed rest: After cerclage surgery, to decrease pressure on the sutures. 5. Abortion Definition: Termination of pregnancy before the fetus is viable (400-500 grams or 20-24 weeks gestation). Types of Abortion: • Spontaneous Abortion: Pregnancy interruption due to natural causes. ◦ Threatened: Mild cramping, vaginal spotting. ◦ Inevitable/Imminent: Profuse bleeding, uterine contractions, cervical dilation. ◦ Complete: All products of conception expelled spontaneously. ◦ Incomplete: Part of the conceptus expelled, some retained in the uterus. ◦ Missed: Fetus dies in utero but is not expelled. ◦ Habitual: 3 or more consecutive spontaneous abortions. • Induced Abortion: Deliberate termination of pregnancy in a controlled setting. Complications of Abortion: • Hemorrhage. • Infection (endometritis, parametritis, peritonitis, thrombophlebitis, septicemia). Management: • Bed rest. • Emotional support. • Sedation. • D&C: Surgical removal of retained products of conception. • Antibiotics. • Blood transfusion. 6. Placenta Previa Definition: The placenta is implanted in the lower uterine segment, covering the cervical os, obstructing the birth canal. Incidence: 5 per 1000 pregnancies. Signs and Symptoms: • Abrupt, painless vaginal bleeding (bright red). • Bleeding may stop or slow after the initial hemorrhage, but continue as spotting. Types: • Total: Placenta completely obstructs the cervical os. • Partial: Placenta partially obstructs the cervical os. • Marginal: Placenta edge approaches the cervical os. • Low-lying: Placenta implanted in the lower rather than the upper portion of the uterus. Therapeutic Management: • Immediate Care: Bed rest in a side-lying position. • Assessment: Monitor vital signs, bleeding, and fetal heart sounds. • Intravenous Therapy: Fluid replacement with large gauge catheter. • Delivery: Vaginal birth (safe for infant if previa is less than 30%). Cesarean section (safest for both mother and infant if previa is over 30%). 7. Abruptio Placenta/ Premature Separation of Placenta/ Accidental Hemorrhage/ Placental Abruption Definition: Separation of a normally implanted placenta after the 20th week of pregnancy, before birth of the fetus. Incidence: Most frequent cause of perinatal death. Causes: • Unknown. • Predisposing Factors: ◦ High parity. ◦ Advanced maternal age. ◦ Short umbilical cord. ◦ Chronic hypertensive disease. ◦ PIH. ◦ Trauma (automobile accident, intimate partner abuse). ◦ Cocaine or cigarette use. ◦ Thrombophilitic conditions (autoimmune antibodies). Classification: • Total/Complete: Concealed hemorrhage. • Partial: Concealed or apparent hemorrhage. Signs and Symptoms: • Sharp, stabbing pain in the uterine fundus. • Contractions accompanied by pain. • Uterine tenderness on palpation. • Heavy vaginal bleeding (may be concealed). • Signs of shock. • Tense, rigid uterus. • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC). Therapeutic Management: • Fluid Replacement: IV fluids. • Oxygen: Limit fetal hypoxia. • Fetal Monitoring: External fetal heart rate monitoring. • Fibrinogen Determination: IV fibrinogen or cryoprecipitate. • Lateral Position: Prevent pressure on the vena cava. • Delivery: CS is the method of choice if birth is not imminent. 8. Premature Rupture of Membranes Definition: Rupture of the fetal membranes with loss of amniotic fluid during pregnancy before 37 weeks. Incidence: 5%-10% of pregnancies. Causes: • Unknown. • Associated with: Infection of the membranes (chorioamnionitis), vaginal infections (gonorrhea, streptococcus B, Chlamydia). Signs and Symptoms: • Sudden gush of clear fluid from the vagina with continued minimal leakage. • Nitrazine paper test: Amniotic fluid turns the paper blue (alkaline), urine remains yellow (acidic). • Microscopic examination: Amniotic fluid shows ferning, urine does not. • Ultrasound: Assess amniotic fluid index. • Signs of infection (increased WBC count, C-reactive protein, temperature, tenderness, odorous vaginal discharge). Therapeutic Management: • Bed Rest: To prevent further leakage and risk of infection. • Corticosteroids: To hasten fetal lung maturity. • Prophylactic Antibiotics: To reduce risk of infection. • Intravenous Penicillin/Ampicillin: If (+) for streptococcus B. • Induction of Labor: If fetus is mature and labor does not begin within 24 hours. 9. Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension (PIH)/ Toxemia Definition: Vasospasm occurring in both small and large arteries during pregnancy, causing elevated blood pressure, proteinuria, and edema. Incidence: Rarely occurs before 20 weeks of pregnancy. Risk Factors: • Multiple pregnancy. • Primiparas younger than 20 or older than 40. • Low socioeconomic background. • Five or more pregnancies. • Hydramnios. • Underlying diseases (heart disease, diabetes). • Rh incompatibility. • History of H-mole. Categories: • Gestational Hypertension: Blood pressure 140/90 or greater, without proteinuria or edema. • Preeclampsia: Blood pressure 140/90 or greater, with proteinuria and edema. • Eclampsia: Seizures or coma accompanied by preeclampsia. Therapeutic Management: • Preeclampsia: Bed rest, balanced diet, left lateral position. • Severe Preeclampsia: Hospitalization, diazepam, hydralazine, magnesium sulfate. • Eclampsia: Magnesium sulfate, diazepam, oxygen therapy, left lateral position

endomembrane system Semi-autonomous organelles Protein sorting to organelles Systems biology of cells Cell Biology & Cell Theory Cell biology: The study of individual cells and their interactions. Cell Theory (Schleiden & Schwann, with contributions from Virchow): All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells are the smallest units of life. New cells arise only from pre-existing cells through division (e.g., binary fission). Origins of Life: Four Overlapping Stages Stage 1: Formation of Organic Molecules Primitive Earth conditions favored spontaneous organic molecule formation. Hypotheses on the origin of organic molecules: Reducing Atmosphere Hypothesis: Earth's early atmosphere (rich in water vapor) facilitated molecule formation. Stanley Miller’s experiment simulated early conditions, producing amino acids and sugars. Extraterrestrial Hypothesis: Organic carbon (amino acids, nucleic acid bases) may have come from meteorites. Debate exists over survival after intense heating. Deep-Sea Vent Hypothesis: Molecules formed in the temperature gradient between hot vent water & cold ocean water. Supported by experimental evidence. Alkaline hydrothermal vents may have created pH gradients that allowed organic molecule formation. Stage 2: Formation of Polymers Early belief: Prebiotic synthesis of polymers was unlikely in aqueous solutions (water competes with polymerization). Experimental evidence: Clay surfaces facilitated the formation of nucleic acid polymers and polysaccharides. Stage 3: Formation of Boundaries Protobionts: Aggregates of prebiotically produced molecules enclosed by membranes. Characteristics of a protobiont: Boundary separating the internal & external environments. Polymers with information (e.g., genetic material, metabolic instructions). Catalytic functions (enzymatic activities). Self-replication. Liposomes: Vesicles surrounded by lipid bilayers. Can enclose RNA and divide. Stage 4: RNA World Hypothesis RNA was likely the first macromolecule in protobionts due to its ability to: Store information. Self-replicate. Catalyze reactions (ribozymes). Chemical Selection & Evolution: RNA mutations allowed faster replication & self-sufficient nucleotide synthesis. Eventually, RNA world was replaced by the DNA-RNA-protein world due to: DNA providing more stable information storage. Proteins offering greater catalytic efficiency and specialized functions. Microscopy Microscopy Parameters Resolution: Ability to distinguish two adjacent objects. Contrast: Difference between structures (enhanced by special dyes). Magnification: Ratio of image size to actual size. Types of Microscopes Light Microscope: Uses light; resolution = 0.2 micrometers. Electron Microscope: Uses electron beams; resolution = 2 nanometers (100x better than light microscopes). Light Microscopy Subtypes Bright Field: Standard; light passes directly through. Phase Contrast: Amplifies differences in light phase shifts. Differential Interference Contrast (DIC): Enhances contrast for internal structures. Electron Microscopy Subtypes Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Thin slices stained with heavy metals. Some electrons scatter while others pass through to create an image. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Heavy metal-coated sample. Electron beam scans the surface, producing 3D images. Cell Structure & Function Determined by matter, energy, organization, and information. Genome: The complete set of genetic material. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells Nucleus ❌ Absent ✅ Present Membrane-bound organelles ❌ None ✅ Yes Size Small (1-10 µm) Large (10-100 µm) Examples Bacteria, Archaea Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists Prokaryotic Cell Structure Plasma Membrane: Lipid bilayer barrier. Cytoplasm: Internal fluid. Nucleoid Region: DNA storage (no nucleus). Ribosomes: Protein synthesis. Cell Wall: (Some) Provides structure & protection. Glycocalyx: Protection & hydration. Flagella: Movement. Pili: Attachment. Eukaryotic Cell Structure Nucleus: Contains DNA & controls cell functions. Organelles: Rough ER: Protein synthesis & sorting. Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, detoxification. Golgi Apparatus: Protein modification & sorting. Mitochondria: ATP production (Powerhouse of the Cell™). Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for breakdown & recycling. Peroxisomes: Breakdown of harmful substances. Cytoskeleton: Provides structure (microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments). Plasma Membrane: Regulates transport & signaling. Endomembrane System Includes: Nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membrane. Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane structure. Nuclear pores allow molecule transport. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies & sorts proteins/lipids. Packages proteins into vesicles for secretion (exocytosis). Lysosomes: Contain acid hydrolases for macromolecule breakdown. Perform autophagy (organelle recycling). Semi-Autonomous Organelles Mitochondria Function: ATP production (cellular respiration). Structure: Outer & inner membrane (inner folds = cristae for increased surface area). Mitochondrial matrix houses metabolic enzymes. Chloroplasts (Plants & Algae) Function: Photosynthesis (light energy → chemical energy). Structure: Outer & inner membrane. Thylakoid membrane (site of photosynthesis). Contains chlorophyll. Endosymbiosis Theory Mitochondria & chloroplasts evolved from free-living bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. Protein Sorting & Cell Organization Co-translational sorting: Proteins destined for ER, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, or secretion. Post-translational sorting: Proteins sent to nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes. Systems Biology Studies how cellular components interact to form a functional system

Neurotransmitter + Brain vesicles

Immune System Study Guide Function of the Immune System Main Function: The immune system protects the body from harmful invaders (pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc.) and detects and eliminates abnormal cells.Detects and destroys foreign invaders . Yngv Memory: The immune system has the ability to "remember" past infections, allowing it to respond more quickly to the same pathogen if encountered again.Maintains a memory of past infections to mount a quicker response if the same pathogen attacks again. Types of Immunity Innate Immunity: The immune system you're born with; provides a quick response to any pathogen. First line of defense: Skin and mucus act as physical barriers. Macrophages: Large white blood cells that "eat" pathogens and activate other immune cells. Histamine & Inflammation: Histamine triggers inflammation to fight infection (redness, heat, swelling, pain). Adaptive Immunity: Develops over time and strengthens with repeated exposure to pathogens. B-cells: Produce antibodies that specifically target pathogens. T-cells: Help destroy infected cells or coordinate the immune response. Memory Cells: "Remember" past infections for faster responses in the future. Innate immunity is something you're born with and provides a quick response to any pathogen. Adaptive immunity develops over time, adapting to new threats. It includes things like antibodies and memory cells. Signs of Inflammation Redness (rubor): Increased blood flow to the affected area. Heat (calor): Blood flow increases temperature at the site. Swelling (tumor): Fluid accumulation and immune cells moving to the area. Pain (dolor): Due to chemicals irritating nerve endings. Loss of Function (functio laesa): Temporary loss of function in the inflamed area. Bacteria vs. Viruses feature bacteria viruses size bigger smaller Can live without a host? yes no Good or bad Some are helpful Always harmful treatment Antibiotics kill them No antibiotics, only vaccines or immune system fights them examples Strep throat Flu, COVID-19 Antibiotic Resistance Occurs when bacteria evolve to resist antibiotics. Reasons for Resistance: Overuse or misuse of antibiotics. Using antibiotics for viral infections. Self-medicating without proper diagnosis. Vaccines What Are They?: Biological preparations that provide immunity against specific diseases. How Do They Work?: Contain weakened or inactivated parts of a pathogen to stimulate an immune response. Importance: Vaccines teach the immune system to recognize pathogens and fight them effectively in the future. They also contribute to herd immunity. Reproductive System Study Guide Male Reproductive System Testes: Produce sperm and the hormone testosterone. Epididymis: Stores sperm until they mature. Vas Deferens: Transports sperm from the testes to the urethra. Prostate Gland & Seminal Vesicles: Produce fluids that nourish and transport sperm. Penis: Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract during ejaculation. Female Reproductive System Ovaries: Produce eggs (ova) and hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Fallopian Tubes: Transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus; fertilization typically occurs here. Uterus: Where a fertilized egg implants and develops during pregnancy. Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that connects it to the vagina. Vagina: The passage that receives sperm and also serves as the birth canal. Conception and Pregnancy Conception: Occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg in the fallopian tube, forming a zygote, which then implants in the uterus. Pregnancy: The zygote develops into an embryo and then a fetus in three trimesters: First Trimester (Weeks 1-12): Organ development begins; the heart starts to beat. Second Trimester (Weeks 13-26): Rapid growth; organs mature and gender can be determined. Third Trimester (Weeks 27-Birth): The fetus continues to grow; organs mature, especially the lungs. Factors Affecting Baby Development Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, pollutants, drugs, or infections. Nutrition: Essential nutrients are crucial for healthy fetal development. Health conditions: Chronic conditions like diabetes or hypertension can affect pregnancy. Types of Contraception Barrier Methods: Condoms (Male & Female): Prevent sperm from reaching the egg and protect against STDs. Pros: Easy to use, no side effects, protects against STDs. Cons: Must be used correctly every time; can break or slip off. Diaphragm with Spermicide: A barrier placed in the vagina to cover the cervix. Pros: Non-hormonal, on-demand use. Cons: Requires fitting, not effective without spermicide. Hormonal Methods: Birth Control Pills: Prevent ovulation through hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Pros: Highly effective, can regulate periods, reduces acne. Cons: Must be taken daily, side effects like nausea or headaches. Patch: Worn on the skin to release hormones. Pros: Easy to use, weekly change. Cons: Visible, may cause skin irritation. Implant: A small device placed under the skin to release hormones. Pros: Long-lasting (up to 3 years), effective. Cons: Requires professional insertion, can cause irregular bleeding. IUD (Intrauterine Device): A device inserted into the uterus to prevent fertilization. Pros: Long-lasting (5-10 years), effective. Cons: Requires professional insertion, may cause cramping. Permanent Methods: Vasectomy (Male): Cutting and sealing the vas deferens to prevent sperm from reaching the urethra. Tubal Ligation (Female): Cutting or sealing the fallopian tubes to prevent eggs from reaching the uterus. Pros: Permanent, highly effective. Cons: Surgical procedures, irreversible, not suitable for those wanting future children. Emergency Contraception: Morning-After Pill: Taken after unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. Pros: Available over-the-counter, effective within 72 hours. Cons: Not for regular use, may cause side effects. Copper IUD: Can be inserted up to 5 days after unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. Key Takeaways Immune System: It provides a defense against infections, relying on both innate (immediate) and adaptive (long-term) immunity, with important components like macrophages and memory cells. Vaccines are essential in helping the immune system recognize pathogens and prevent diseases. Reproductive System: Male and female systems work together to ensure conception and pregnancy, with critical stages of fetal development occurring in the three trimesters. Environmental factors and health conditions can impact pregnancy. Contraception Methods: There are various types, each with its pros and cons, including barrier methods, hormonal methods, and permanent methods. Choosing the right method depends on individual needs, effectiveness, and side effects. Histamine & Inflammation: Histamine release can cause redness, warmth, and swelling as part of the body's inflammatory response to infection or injury. Vaccines & Herd Immunity: Vaccines are critical in preventing the spread of infectious diseases by "teaching" the immune system to recognize and fight specific pathogens. Herd immunity occurs when a large portion of a population is vaccinated, making it harder for diseases to spread. Components of the Immune System: Defense against pathogens: The immune system helps protect the body from harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Recognition of abnormal cells: It identifies and eliminates cells that are infected or cancerous Key Defense Lines: First Line of Defense: Skin & mucus trap and kill germs. Second Line of Defense: Inflammation and macrophages (eat germs). Third Line of Defense: T-cells destroy infected cells, B-cells make antibodies to target germs

vacuoles/vesicles