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INTRODUCTORY SOCIOLOGY — CHAPTERS 1–5 The Study Guide Key concepts, theories, and methods for mastering the social world Ch. 1 — Sociology Ch. 2 — Research Ch. 3 — Culture Ch. 4 — Socialization Ch. 5 — Groups 01 CHAPTER ONE Sociology and the Real World What Is Sociology? Sociology is the systematic, scientific study of human society, social relationships, and social institutions. It examines how group membership and social forces shape individual behavior, beliefs, and life chances — using the sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills) to connect personal troubles to larger historical and structural forces. Micro vs. Macro Sociology micro Microsociology Focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions: how individuals communicate, negotiate meaning, and create social reality in everyday situations. Example: a conversation between two people. macro Macrosociology Focuses on large-scale social structures, institutions, and broad patterns across societies. Example: how capitalism shapes inequality across a nation. Major Theoretical Perspectives Structural Functionalism Society is a system of interrelated parts (institutions) that each serve a function to maintain stability and order. Dysfunction disrupts equilibrium. Key figures: Durkheim, Parsons. Conflict Theory Society is characterized by competition and inequality. Those with power exploit those without; social change comes through struggle. Key figure: Marx. Weberian Theory Emphasizes the role of ideas, culture, and meaning (not just economics) in shaping social life. Introduces stratification by class, status, and party; the concept of rationalization and bureaucracy. Key figure: Weber. Symbolic Interactionism People act based on the meanings they attach to objects and others, meanings that arise through social interaction and are maintained through interpretation. Key figures: Mead, Blumer. micro Postmodernism Rejects grand narratives and universal truths; argues that reality is socially constructed, knowledge is fragmented, and power shapes what counts as truth. Skeptical of science's neutrality. Key figures: Foucault, Baudrillard. Midrange Theory Seeks to build limited, testable theories about specific phenomena rather than sweeping explanations of all of society. Bridges abstract theory and empirical research. Key figure: Merton. 02 CHAPTER TWO Studying Social Life: Research Methods Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Quantitative Uses numerical data and statistical analysis to test hypotheses and identify patterns across large samples. Examples: surveys with Likert scales, census data, experiments with control/treatment groups. Qualitative Generates rich, descriptive, non-numerical data to understand meaning, experience, and context in depth. Examples: ethnography, in-depth interviews, focus groups, content analysis of texts. Steps of the Scientific Method Identify a research problem or question Review existing literature on the topic Formulate a hypothesis (a testable prediction) Design a research methodology and collect data Analyze the data Draw conclusions and report findings (inviting replication) Six Research Methods — Strengths & Weaknesses Method Description Strengths Weaknesses Ethnography / Participant Observation Researcher immerses in a social setting to observe behavior firsthand Deep insight; captures context; reveals hidden norms Time-intensive; small scale; researcher bias; ethical issues of access Interviews Structured, semi-structured, or unstructured conversations to gather in-depth perspectives Rich qualitative detail; flexible; clarification possible Interviewer effect; social desirability bias; hard to generalize Surveys Standardized questionnaires administered to large samples Efficient; large-scale; quantifiable; cheap Superficial; question wording bias; low response rates; can't capture complexity Existing Sources Analysis of historical records, official statistics, media, documents, or prior studies Non-reactive; access to historical data; cost-effective Data may be incomplete, biased, or collected for other purposes Experiments Manipulates an independent variable in controlled conditions to measure effects Establishes causality; controls for confounds; replicable Artificial setting; ethical constraints; demand characteristics; limited scope Social Network Analysis Maps and measures relationships and information flows among individuals or groups Reveals structural patterns invisible in individual-level data; visual and quantitative Data collection is complex; boundary specification problems; privacy concerns Pitfalls & Ethical Issues Validity & Reliability: Ensuring a study measures what it claims to and produces consistent results Sampling Bias: Non-representative samples skew findings Researcher Bias: Personal values and assumptions can distort data collection and interpretation Informed Consent: Participants must voluntarily agree based on full knowledge of the study Confidentiality & Anonymity: Protecting the identities and privacy of participants Harm Prevention: Research must not expose participants to physical, psychological, or social harm Deception: Deceiving subjects (e.g., Milgram) raises serious ethical concerns even when scientifically useful 03 CHAPTER THREE Culture Defining Culture Culture is the totality of shared beliefs, values, norms, symbols, language, material objects, and practices that members of a society learn and transmit across generations. Ethnocentrism Judging another culture by the standards of one's own, viewing one's culture as superior. Can lead to misunderstanding and discrimination. Cultural Relativism Understanding a culture on its own terms, without imposing outside judgments. Promotes open-minded cross-cultural comparison. Components of Culture Symbols: Anything that carries shared meaning (flags, words, gestures) Language: The primary vehicle for transmitting culture; shapes perception (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) Values: Broad, shared standards of what is good, desirable, or important Norms: Specific rules of behavior — folkways (informal), mores (moral norms), and laws (formalized) Material Culture: Physical objects created and used by a society (tools, buildings, clothing) Non-material Culture: Intangible elements — beliefs, values, ideas, customs Subcultures & Countercultures in the U.S. A subculture shares the dominant culture's overall values but maintains distinct norms or practices. A counterculture actively opposes or rejects core values of the dominant culture. Subcultures: LGBTQ+ communities Amish communities Hip-hop culture Gamer culture College Greek life Countercultures: 1960s hippie movement Militia movements Punk movement Anti-consumerism groups Processes of Cultural Change Discovery: Recognizing and understanding something previously unknown Invention: Creating new tools, ideas, or social patterns Diffusion: Spreading cultural elements from one culture to another Cultural Imperialism: Dominant cultures overpower or displace local ones (often via media or globalization) Acculturation: A minority group adopts elements of a dominant culture 04 CHAPTER FOUR Socialization, Interaction, and the Self Nature vs. Nurture Human behavior is shaped by both genetics (biological predispositions, temperament) and social environment (culture, interaction, learning). Sociologists emphasize that even traits with biological bases are expressed and interpreted through social contexts. Studies of feral children and cases of extreme isolation demonstrate that human potential requires social interaction to develop. Socialization & Social Isolation Socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to their society. Cases of social isolation (e.g., children raised in severely deprived environments) show that without social contact, children fail to develop language, emotional regulation, and basic cognitive skills — demonstrating that the "self" is fundamentally social in origin. Theories of the Self Cooley — "Looking-Glass Self" We develop our self-concept by imagining how others perceive us, then internalizing those imagined judgments. The self is a reflection of social feedback. Mead — "I" and "Me" The self has two parts: the spontaneous I and the socialized Me. Through play and games, children learn to take on the role of others and internalize the "generalized other" (society's expectations). Goffman — Dramaturgical Model Social life is like a theatrical performance. We manage impressions in "front stage" behavior and relax norms "backstage." The self is a performance, not a fixed essence. Agents of Socialization Family: The primary agent; instills foundational values, language, and identity from birth Schools: Teach not only academic skills but the "hidden curriculum" — punctuality, obedience, competition Peer Groups: Increasingly important in adolescence; shape attitudes, norms, and sense of belonging outside family Media: Pervasive shaper of cultural norms, gender roles, beauty standards, and political attitudes Statuses, Roles, and Role Conflict Ascribed status: Assigned at birth, involuntary (race, sex, birth order) Achieved status: Earned through effort or choice (occupation, education) Master status: One status that overrides all others (e.g., felon, celebrity) Role conflict: Occurs when incompatible demands arise from two different statuses (e.g., parent vs. employee) Role strain: Tension within a single role when its demands are contradictory (e.g., a manager who must be both friend and disciplinarian) 05 CHAPTER FIVE Separate and Together: Life in Groups Primary vs. Secondary Groups Primary Groups Small, intimate, emotionally close groups with enduring relationships. Members value the relationship for its own sake. Examples: family, close friends, a tight-knit sports team. Secondary Groups Larger, more impersonal, and goal-oriented. Relationships are instrumental. Examples: a workplace, a university class, a professional association. Group Size, Cohesion, Prejudice & Discrimination Dyads (2 people): Most intimate but fragile — collapses if one leaves Triads (3 people): More stable; coalitions can form; a third party can mediate or divide Larger groups: Greater stability but less intimacy; formalization of rules becomes necessary Cohesion: High cohesion strengthens commitment and performance but can lead to groupthink In-groups & Out-groups: Defining "us" vs. "them" fuels prejudice (negative attitudes) and discrimination (unequal treatment) against out-group members Social Influence & Conformity — Three Classic Experiments Asch Conformity Studies (1950s) Participants gave obviously wrong answers on a line-comparison task when confederates unanimously did so first — showing powerful pressure to conform even when the correct answer was clear. Milgram Obedience Studies (1960s) Participants administered what they believed to be dangerous electric shocks on an authority figure's orders — revealing alarming levels of obedience to legitimate authority. Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) College students assigned roles of "guard" or "prisoner" quickly conformed to those roles so intensely the study had to be stopped — illustrating how situational context shapes behavior. Group Composition & Leadership Diversity: Diverse groups tend to produce more creative solutions but can experience more conflict initially Leadership styles: Authoritarian (top-down, efficient in crisis); Democratic (collaborative, higher satisfaction); Laissez-faire (minimal direction, works with highly self-motivated groups) Instrumental leaders focus on task completion; expressive leaders maintain group morale and cohesion Bureaucracy & McDonaldization Bureaucracy (Weber) is a formal organization characterized by a clear hierarchy of authority, written rules and procedures, specialization of labor, and impersonality. It is the dominant organizational form of modern society. McDonaldization (Ritzer) extends Weber's rationalization thesis: modern society increasingly organizes social life around four principles modeled on fast food — efficiency (the optimal method), calculability (emphasis on quantity over quality), predictability (standardized outcomes), and control (substituting technology for human judgment). The irony: the rational system produces irrational outcomes (e.g., dehumanization, loss of creativity, homogenization of culture)

MMiPeople Francesco Redi: scientist who tested spontaneous generation with rotting meat and maggot formation with an open container, sealed container, and gauze-covered container, and refuted spontaneous generation Needham: scientist who tested spontaneous generation with boiling chicken broth, sealing the container, and waiting a few days to assess for microbial growth, and supported spontaneous generation Spallanzani: scientist who tested spontaneous generation with further testing, Needham’s experiment, and tested with an open and closed container that was later opened, and refuted spontaneous generation Louis Pasteur: scientist who used swan-neck flasks in his experiment and definitively refuted spontaneous generation Anthony van Leeuwenhoek: scientist who was the first to observe eukaryotic microbes, calling them “wee animalcule” Robert Hooke: coined the term “cell” when looking at cork Matthias Schleiden: observed cells in plant tissue Theodor Schwann: observed cells in animal tissue Rudolf Virchow and Robert Remark: observed cells dividing to make new cells (not mitosis) Hippocrates: suggested disease has natural causes Thucydides: advocated for evidence-based analysis of cause and effect and suggested immunity after observing plague survivors didn't get sick again Marcus Terentius Varro: the first to propose that things we cannot see cause disease Ignaz Semmelweis: physician who observed the spread of disease among patients in different sides of the hospital and instituted hand washing between patients to reduce the spread of disease from patient to patient via healthcare workers Joseph Lister: surgeon who observed post-surgical infection and instituted hand washing and sterilization of medical equipment with 5% phenol solution for less disease Robert Koch: scientist who developed Koch’s postulates to determine the cause of disease and had a rivalry with Louis Pasteur John Snow: questioned the London cholera outbreak and asked questions to the people who had been infected about where they had been and what they had eaten or drank, and noticed that everyone who had cholera used one of two water pumps Classification of microbes What are the 2 domains that are composed of all microbes? Bacteria and Archaea What domain of life is composed only of some microbes? Eukarya What types of microbes do not fit into the domains of life? Viruses and Prions Prions: unicellular organisms in the domains Bacteria and Archaea with no nucleus and have cell walls Viruses: acellular and domainless (not alive) Eukaryotes: unicellular OR multicellular organisms, in domain Eukarya, have a nucleus, have membrane-bound organelles, and include fungi, algae, protazoa, and helminths How many times bigger are bacteria than viruses? 100x A cell is around how many times bigger than an individual bacteria? 10x Cell structures Know the function, general location, and whether they are shared with eukaryotes (if yes similarities/differences) of the following structures: 1. Nucleoid: contains chromosome(s) and nuclear-associated proteins that are usually haploid and circular near the center of the cell, which hold the DNA genetic information without a membrane Eukaryotes = have a nucleus, are diploid and linear Prokaryotes = have nucleoid, are haploid and circular 2. Ribosomes: work with mRNA protein synthesis, made up of proteins and RNA, found in cytoplasm Eukaryotes: 80S, 60 large, 40 small (18S sequencing) Prokaryotes: 70S, 50 large, 30 small (16S sequencing) 3. Cytoplasm: fluid inner layer 4. Fimbriae: short, bristle-like projections for attachment to surfaces 5. Endospores: not all bacteria have, protect bacteria in a dormant state/ harsh environment, found inside bacteria, sporulation = the process of becoming dormant, germination = process of becoming active 6. Plasma membrane: semipermeable, composed of lipids and proteins, controls transport into and out of cell, most inner layer before cytoplasm (ex: facilitated diffusion, active transport, diffusion, endocytosis (Eukaryotes), sterols (Eukaryotes), and cholesterol (Eukaryotes) Same for Eukaryotes 7. Cell wall: protects against harsh changing environments and osmotic stress, contains peptidoglycan in bacteria, contains Gram + and Gram - Steps of Gram stain: dye with crystal violet, iodine (mordant), alcohol (decolorizer), and safranin red If mycobacteria complete an acid-fast stain Gram + has LTA an TA and one membrane Gram - has LPS and 2 membranes 8. Capsule: protective protein shell, outermost layer 9. Pilus: medium projection, adheres to surfaces, does DNA gene transfer 10. Flagellum: long protein projections made of flagellin for movement (ex: 1= monotrichous, one at each end = amphitrichous, many at one end = lophotrichous, many flagella all over the cell = peritrichous 11. Plasmid: circular, double-stranded DNA not part of the chromosome, and can have 1-100 of the same or different plasmids to help with gene transfer, antibiotic resistance, and virulence factors, found anywhere in the cytoplasm Not part of Eukaryotes 12. Inclusion: not all bacteria have, helps with the storage of nutrients and other materials, has protein shell, and is found in cytoplasm (ex: lipid droplets store fats, volutin stores inorganic phosphates, sulfur inclusions store sulfur, gas bubbles store gas for buoyancy in water, magnetosomes store metals for movement) Not part of Eukaryotes; instead, they have vesicles for storage All cellular microbes have what four (4) components? Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, and DNA What is the only component of all cells that viruses have? Cytoplasm Know/ be able to identify the shapes of bacteria Round shape: coccus Rod shape: bacillus Vibrio: curved rod shape Short rods with combo of coccus and bacillus: coccobacillus Wavy spiral shape: Spirillum Coiled spiral shape: Spirochete Microbial growth Phases of growth Lag Phase: bacteria gear up for replication by increasing cell size, metabolism, and protein synthesis Log Phase: exponential growth phase, where bacteria actively replicate and are most susceptible to antibiotics Stationary Phase: growth curve flatlines bc bacteria are dying at same rate of growth, begin survival mode and sporulation, produce secondary metabolites, and produce virulence factors, and are low on space, nutrients, and oxygen Death Phase: bacteria die at exponential rate, increase amount of toxic waste, release spores, some spontaneously lyse to feed others, and persister cells refuse to die How do microbes replicate? Through binary fission, fragmentation, budding, and sexually What is a biofilm? Communities of bacteria (steps: colonization, attachment, replication, make EPS with antibiotic resistance, EPS kick bacteria out to replicate somewhere else) How does quorum sensing work? Bacteria want to work together, so they secrete autoinducers, and when you activate enough receptors, they activate a response Growth requirements – classifications and adaptations 1. Oxygen requirements Obligate Aerobes: need O2 to survive Obligate Anaerobes: die in presence of O2 Faculative: mostly need O2 but can survive without it Microaerophiles: need O2 for survival but not atmospheric O2 (low levels) Aerotolerant: can survive with or without oxygen Capnophiles: like high CO2 and low O2 2. pH requirements Acidophiles: low pH (2-4), high H+ environments, efflux pumps to remove H+ ions, changes membrane composition to withstand low pH Neutrophiles: neutral pH (7), found within body Alkaliphiles: basic pH (9-10), modified lipid protein structures, modified electron transport system that use Na+ instead of H+, high OH- environment 3. temperature requirements Psychrophiles: like freezing temperatures a below 0-15 degrees, die at or above 20 degrees, found in cold lakes or the ocean floor, have hydrophobic proteins to increase flexibility, have decreased secondary stabilizing bonds Psychrotolerant: cold not ideal but wont kill them, live between 4-25 degrees (fridge temperature) Mesophiles: moderate temperatures, 20-40 degrees, grow in body Thermophiles: hot environments 50-80 degrees, hot springs, geothermal soil Hyperthermophiles: very hot environments 80-110 degrees, found in hydrothermal vents, increased saturation in membranes, increased stabilizing bonds, alter amino acids to prevent denaturation 4. osmolarity requirements Hypertonic: more water out Hypotonic: more water in Isotonic: equal water in and out Halotolerant: dont require salt but can grow in high salt environments Halophiles: love salt, found in ocean and salt lakes, have increased cytoplasmic glycerol, have efflux pumps for salt 5. barometric requirements Barophile: survive high atmospheric environments like the bottom of the ocean (something at top of mountain has low atmospheric pressure) Microbial Metabolism Means of generating energy (do the processes require oxygen?, which gives the most energy?) Glycolysis: does not require O2 bc it can be used during fermentation, used 2 ATP, makes 4 ATP, NET 2 ATP Kreb’s cycle: requires O2; NET after 1 round= 1ATP, 1 NADH, 1FADH2 (x2 for second round) Electron transport: requires O2, biggest payout of ATP with NET 34 ATP Photosynthesis: does not require O2 as it is a waste product, can do oxygenic and anoxygenic Microbial genetics DNA Replication – enzymes and functions DNA gyrase: unwinds DNA (enzyme) Helicase: unzips DNA (enzyme) Single-stranded binding proteins: bind to DNA so doesnt close back up (protein) Single-stranded binding proteins: bind to DNA so doesnt close back up (protein) DNA polymerase III: lay down new DNA nucleotides, synthesizes leading and lagging strands 5’ →3’(enzyme) DNA polymerase I: removes RNA primers (enzyme) DNA Ligase: seals RNA primers (enzyme) Topoisomerase 4: separates 2 circular chromosomes Transcription and translation – enzymes and function 1. RNA polymerase: turns DNA→ mRNA (transcription) 2. Ribosomes: 30S small, 50S large, 70S total 3. tRNA: A,P, and E sites, bacteria links transcription and translation bc no nucleus, has anticodon at opposite long 3’ end, high energy bond, same active translation process as Eukaryotes Be able to do DNA base pairing, transcription, and translation (given codon table) Also know differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic Replication, transcription, and translation Genetic Diversity – how does this work? 1. Transformation: uptake of plasmid into different bacteria and is incorporated into its genetic material 2. Transduction: bacteriophage inserts its plasmid into a bacteria (virus that infects a bacteria) 3. Conjugation: like plasmid transfer (ex: rolling circle replication), “bacterial sex” 4