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📘 Chapter 19: Blood – Full Simplified Study Notes (27 Slides) ⸻ Slide 1: Cardiovascular System • Cardiovascular system = heart, blood, blood vessels. • Blood’s job: • Delivers nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and chemical messages. • Carries immune cells to fight infections. • Why it matters: Without this transport system, cells would starve and toxins would build up. • Analogy: Like UPS + garbage service → delivers packages (nutrients, O₂) and removes trash (waste, CO₂). ⸻ Slide 2: Whole Blood • Whole blood = plasma + formed elements. • Hematocrit: percentage of blood volume made of cells. • Plasma: watery fluid. • Key properties of blood: • Temp: 38°C (100.4°F) → warmer than body surface. • Thickness: 5x thicker than water. • pH: ~7.4 (slightly alkaline). • Volume: Men = 5–6 L, Women = 4–5 L. • About 7% of body weight. • Example: If someone weighs 150 lbs, about 10 lbs of that is blood. ⸻ Slide 3: Blood Plasma • Plasma = liquid with proteins + solutes. • Proteins: • Albumins: keep water inside blood vessels (prevent swelling). • Globulins: antibodies → defense. • Fibrinogen: forms clots. • Other solutes: • Electrolytes: Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻ (important for nerves/muscles). • Nutrients: glucose, fructose, amino acids. • Wastes: urea, uric acid. • Analogy: Plasma = soup broth carrying salt, sugar, proteins, and waste. ⸻ Slide 4: Formed Elements • Red Blood Cells (RBCs / erythrocytes): 99.9% of all blood cells. • RBC count: Men = 4.5–6.3 million/μL, Women = 4.2–5.5 million/μL. • Platelets: fragments needed for clotting. • White Blood Cells (WBCs / leukocytes): fight disease. • Think: Plasma is the liquid, formed elements are the “stuff floating inside.” ⸻ Slide 5: RBC Structure • RBCs lose their nucleus & organelles. • Consequences: • Can’t divide. • Can’t make proteins or repair. • Only use glycolysis (anaerobic metabolism) → no oxygen needed for energy. • Analogy: Like delivery trucks with no engine shop → they drive until they break down. ⸻ Slide 6: RBC Lifespan • RBCs have no nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes → no repair. • Rely on glycolysis for energy. • Live about 120 days. • Must be recycled by spleen/liver. • Example: Like a disposable battery that runs until it dies. ⸻ Slide 7: RBC Shape & Function • Shape = biconcave disc (doughnut-like, thin middle). • Benefits: • High surface area → better oxygen exchange. • Can stack like coins → smooth flow. • Flexible → squeeze through tiny capillaries. • Analogy: Like a flexible frisbee that can bend and stack. ⸻ Slide 8: Hemoglobin • Main protein inside RBC. • Structure: • 2 alpha chains + 2 beta chains. • Each has heme group with iron atom (Fe). • Function: Iron binds oxygen → carries it around body. • Why recycle? Iron is valuable, so old RBCs get broken down to save it. • Analogy: Hemoglobin = oxygen backpack. ⸻ Slide 9: RBC Lifecycle • Starts from hemocytoblast (stem cell). • Branches into: • Myeloid stem cells: make RBCs + some WBCs. • Lymphoid stem cells: make lymphocytes. • Think: Hemocytoblast = tree trunk, RBCs and WBCs = branches. ⸻ Slide 10: RBC Production (Erythropoiesis) • Erythropoiesis = making RBCs. • Embryo: 1st 8 weeks = yolk sac → later liver, spleen, thymus, bone marrow. • Adult: red bone marrow only (vertebrae, sternum, ribs, skull, pelvis, ends of long bones). • Nutrients needed: amino acids, iron, vitamins B12, B6, folic acid. • Analogy: RBCs = cookies, bone marrow = kitchen, iron + vitamins = ingredients. ⸻ Slide 11: RBC Production Control • Controlled by erythropoietin (EPO). • Made by kidneys/liver when low oxygen (hypoxia). • Effects: • Increases stem cell division. • Speeds up hemoglobin production. • Blood doping: Athletes take EPO or reinfuse RBCs → more oxygen for muscles. • Risk: thicker blood → clots, strokes. • Analogy: EPO = coach yelling “make more RBCs!” ⸻ Slide 12: Blood Types • RBCs have antigens on membranes (A, B, AB, O). • Rh factor = + or –. • Plasma has antibodies (agglutinins): attack foreign antigens → cause clumping (agglutination). • Universal donor = O–. • Analogy: Blood type = ID card. If ID doesn’t match, antibodies attack. ⸻ Slide 13: RBC Summary • Know: • How typing works. • How RBCs are made. • What controls them. • Why they live 120 days. • How they’re broken down. • Analogy: RBCs = delivery trucks with expiration dates. ⸻ Slide 14: WBC Basics • WBCs = leukocytes. • Have nuclei, organelles, no Hb. • Functions: fight pathogens, remove wastes, destroy abnormal cells. • Only in blood briefly → then move into tissues. • Analogy: WBCs = body’s police force. ⸻ Slide 15: Neutrophils • 50–70% of WBCs. • Nucleus 2–5 lobes. • First responders → attack bacteria. • Use phagocytosis + enzymes. • Die quickly → pus = dead neutrophils + bacteria. • Analogy: Neutrophils = foot soldiers. ⸻ Slide 16: Basophils • <1% WBCs. • Release histamine (dilates vessels, causes swelling/redness). • Release heparin (prevents clots). • Trigger inflammation → work with mast cells. • Analogy: Basophils = fire alarms. ⸻ Slide 17: Eosinophils • 2–4% WBCs. • Stain red-orange. • Bi-lobed nucleus. • Kill parasites, respond to allergies. • Release toxic chemicals (nitric oxide, enzymes). • Help control inflammation. • Analogy: Eosinophils = exterminators. ⸻ Slide 18: Monocytes • 2–8% WBCs. • Largest WBC, kidney-shaped nucleus. • Become macrophages in tissue. • Eat large pathogens, dead cells. • Call fibrocytes → scar tissue. • Analogy: Monocytes = garbage trucks. ⸻ Slide 19: Lymphocytes • 20–30% WBCs. • Big nucleus, little cytoplasm. • Most live in lymph tissue. • Types: • T cells: attack infected cells. • B cells: make antibodies. • NK cells: kill cancer/virus cells. • Analogy: Lymphocytes = special forces. ⸻ Slide 20: WBC Production • From hemocytoblasts. • Myeloid stem cells: all except lymphocytes. • Lymphoid stem cells: lymphocytes. • Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSFs): • M-CSF = monocytes. • G-CSF = granulocytes. • GM-CSF = granulocytes + monocytes. • Multi-CSF = RBCs + WBCs + platelets. • Analogy: CSFs = managers assigning jobs. ⸻ Slide 21: Platelets • Fragments of cells, no nucleus. • Lifespan = 9–12 days. • Removed by spleen. • 2/3 stored for emergencies. • Analogy: Platelets = emergency patch kits. ⸻ Slide 22: Platelet Functions 1. Release clotting chemicals. 2. Form platelet plug at damage site. 3. Contract (actin + myosin) → shrink clot, close wound. • Analogy: Platelets = patch team pulling duct tape tight. ⸻ Slide 23: Hemostasis • Definition: stopping bleeding. • 3 phases: vascular, platelet, coagulation. • Analogy: Like fixing a leaking pipe step by step. ⸻ Slide 24: Vascular Phase • Vessel wall contracts (vascular spasm). • Endothelial cells: • Expose basement membrane. • Release endothelins → stimulate contraction/healing. • Become sticky → platelets attach. • Analogy: Pinch a hose to slow the leak. ⸻ Slide 25: Platelet Phase • Platelets stick to exposed collagen. • Form platelet plug (15 sec after injury). • Release chemicals: ADP, thromboxane A₂, serotonin, Ca²⁺, PDGF. • Feedback prevents over-clotting. • Analogy: Like putting your hand over a hole until repair arrives. ⸻ Slide 26: Coagulation Phase • Chain reaction of clotting factors. • Fibrinogen → fibrin (forms net). • Common pathway: 1. Factor X → prothrombinase. 2. Prothrombin → thrombin. 3. Fibrinogen → fibrin. • Clot retraction pulls vessel edges together. • Analogy: Casting a fishing net over the leak. ⸻ Slide 27: Fibrinolysis & Clotting Needs • Fibrinolysis: clot dissolves after healing. • t-PA → activates plasminogen → plasmin → digests fibrin. • Requirements for clotting: • Calcium (Ca²⁺): needed in all clotting steps. • Vitamin K: liver makes clotting factors; comes from food + gut bacteria. • Deficiency = bleeding problems. • Analogy: Once pipe is repaired, cut away the net (clot)

Updated 168d ago

Know the relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the molecular weight Small weight-fast diffusion; heavy weight-slow diffusion Identify RBC’s in various solution and determine tonicity Tonicity - the ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, there will be a net flow of water out of the cell, and the cell will lose volume (shrink). A solution will be hypertonic to a cell if its solute concentration is higher than that inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, there will be a net flow of water into the cell, the cell will gain volume (bigger). If the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, then solutes cannot cross the membrane, then the solution is hypotonic to the cell. If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be no set flow of water into or out of the cell, and the cell’s volume will remain stable. If the solute concentration outside the cell is the same as inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane, the solution is isotonic to the cell. Homeostatic feedback loop for respiratory rate, heart rate and temperature Respiratory Rate: Stimulus : The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood increases (often due to exercise or hypoventilation) . Receptors: Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, carotid arteries, and aortic arch detect changes in blood pH and CO2 levels Control Center: The medulla oblongata processes this information Effectors: Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal) adjust breathing rate and depth Response: Increased respiratory rate removes CO2 and increases O2 intake, restoring normal pH and gas levels. Heart Rate: Stimulus : Changes in blood pressure, O2, CO2, or pH levels Receptors: Baroreceptors (detect blood pressure changes) in the carotid sinus and aortic arch; chemoreceptors monitor blood chemistry Control Center: The medulla oblongata (cardiac center) processes signals Effectors : The autonomic nervous system (ANS) adjusts heart rate through the sympathetic nervous system (increases heart rate) or parasympathetic nervous system (decreases heart rate) Response : Heart rate increases during low O2 or low blood pressure (to circulate oxygen) and decreases when homeostasis is restored. Temperature Regulation Stimulus: Changes in body temperature (hyperthermia or hypothermia) Receptors: Thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect temperature fluctuations. Control Center: The hypothalamus processes this information and signals effectors Effectors and Responses: If too hot: Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) to release heat, and sweat glands produce sweat for cooling If too cold: Blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) to retain heat, and shivering generates warmth. Steps of a generic homeostatic feedback loop Stimulus : A change in the internal or external environment that disrupts homeostasis (eg. temperature change, pH levels, blood sugar levels) Sensor (Receptor) : Specialized cells or receptors detect the change and send information to the control center. Control Center (Integrator): Often the brain or endocrine glands, this component processes the information from the sensors and determines the appropriate response to restore balance. Effector: This component carries out the response to the stimulus as dictated by the control center. Effectors can be muscles or glands that help to counteract the change. Response: The action taken by the effectors to restore homeostasis. This could involve increasing or decreasing a physiological process (e.g. sweating to cool down or shivering to warm up) Feedback: The results of the response are monitored. If homeostasis is restored, the system maintains its state; if not, the loop may repeat, continuing to adjust until balance is achieved. How to evaluate data to determine the set point, error, and disturbance Identify the set point The set point is the optimal level or range that the system aims to maintain. To determine the set point: Gather baseline data: Collect data over a period to understand the normal range for the variable in question (e.g. body temp., BP, blood glucose levels) Analyze Trends: Look for patterns in the data to identify the average or median value that represents the stable condition of the system. Consult Literature: Reference established physiological norms or previous studies to confirm the typical set point for the variable. Assess Disturbance A disturbance is any factor or event that causes a deviation from the set point. To evaluate disturbances: Identify External and Internal Factors: Analyze the data for any external influences (e.g. environmental changes, dietary habits) or internal changes (e.g. illness, stress) that might have impacted the variable. Quantity Disturbance: Measure the magnitude and duration of the disturbance. This can be done by comparing the data points during the disturbance against the established set point. Monitor Changes: Track how the system responds to disturbances over time to assess their impact on maintaining homeostasis. WBC types and normal distribution values/ abnormal values and what those values indicate (infections/diseases) (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas) Neutrophils (50-70%) - First responders to infections, especially bacterial. High levels indicate bacterial infections, inflammation, or stress. Low levels can indicate bone marrow disorders or severe infections. Lymphocytes (20-40%) - Include B cells and T cells, important for immunity. High levels can suggest viral infections or leukemia, while low levels might indicate immune deficiency. Monocytes (2-8%) - Help with cleaning up dead cells and fighting infections. High levels can be linked to chronic infections or autoimmune diseases. Eosinophils (1-4%) - Involved in allergic reactions and fighting parasites. Elevated levels may indicate allergies or parasitic infections. Basophils (0.5-1%) - Release histamine during allergic reactions. High levels might be see in allergic conditions or blood disorders. Normal WBC Count Total WBC Count: 4000-11000 cells per microliter of blood (varies slightly by lab) Leukocytosis (High WBC): Can indicate infection, inflammation, stress, or leukemia Leukopenia (Low WBC): Can result from bone marrow disorders, viral infections, or autoimmune diseases Neutrophils: Banded vs Segmented Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells and play a crucial role in fighting infections. They exist in different stages of maturation: Banded Neutrophils (“Bands”) - Immature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a curved, unsegmented nucleus (band-shaped) Normal Range: 0-6% of total WBC count (~0-700/uL) Clinical Significance: Increased Bands (Bandemia) -> Indicates an acute bacterial infection or severe stress (e.g. sepsis). The bone marrow releases immature neutrophils in response to infection. Low Bands -> Not clinically significant unless the total WBC count is low, which could suggest bone marrow suppression. Segmented Neutrophils (“Segs”) - Mature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a segmented nucleus with 2-5 lobes Normal Range: 50-70% of total WBC count (~2500-7000/uL) Clinical Significance: High Segs (Neutrophilia) -> Suggests bacterial infections, stress, chronic inflammation, or leukemia Low Segs (Neutropenia) ->Can be caused by viral infections, bone marrow disorders, chemotherapy, or autoimmune diseases. Discuss the stages of cell cycle/mitosis-which stages are longest/shortest The cell cycle is a series of events that cells go through to grow and divide. It consists of two main phases: Interphase (Longest Phase) – Preparation for division Mitosis (Shortest Phase) – Actual cell division Stages of the Cell Cycle Interphase (90% of the Cell Cycle – Longest Phase) Interphase is the period of cell growth and DNA replication. It has three subphases: G1 Phase (Gap 1) The cell grows, produces proteins, and prepares for DNA replication. Longest variable phase; some cells may stay here indefinitely (e.g., neurons in G0 phase). S Phase (Synthesis) DNA replication occurs, ensuring each daughter cell gets a complete genome. Takes about 6-8 hours in human cells. G2 Phase (Gap 2) The cell prepares for mitosis by producing proteins and organelles. Shorter than G1 but still significant in length. Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Know proportional and inversely proportional relationships Direct (Proportional) Relationship When two quantities increase or decrease together at a constant rate, they are directly proportional. Inversely Proportional When one variable increases, the other decreases proportionally. Know relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion of a substance is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Lighter molecules diffuse faster Heavier molecules diffuse slower due to greater mass. Know relationship between filtration rate and pressure of fluid or weight of fluid Filtration rate is directly proportional to the pressure or weight of the fluid driving the filtration process. Higher pressure → Higher filtration rate Lower pressure → Lower filtration rate Know why men and women blood values are different The differences in blood values between men and women are due to biological, hormonal, and physiological factors

Updated 321d ago

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