Results for "isotonic"

16. Isotonic external medium

IV Fluids: Hypotonic, Isotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions

isotonic, hypo, hyper

isotonic and isometric contractions

Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing

Hypotonic, Hypertonic, and Isotonic

Know the relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the molecular weight Small weight-fast diffusion; heavy weight-slow diffusion Identify RBC’s in various solution and determine tonicity Tonicity - the ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, there will be a net flow of water out of the cell, and the cell will lose volume (shrink). A solution will be hypertonic to a cell if its solute concentration is higher than that inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, there will be a net flow of water into the cell, the cell will gain volume (bigger). If the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, then solutes cannot cross the membrane, then the solution is hypotonic to the cell. If a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there will be no set flow of water into or out of the cell, and the cell’s volume will remain stable. If the solute concentration outside the cell is the same as inside the cell, and the solutes cannot cross the membrane, the solution is isotonic to the cell. Homeostatic feedback loop for respiratory rate, heart rate and temperature Respiratory Rate: Stimulus : The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood increases (often due to exercise or hypoventilation) . Receptors: Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, carotid arteries, and aortic arch detect changes in blood pH and CO2 levels Control Center: The medulla oblongata processes this information Effectors: Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal) adjust breathing rate and depth Response: Increased respiratory rate removes CO2 and increases O2 intake, restoring normal pH and gas levels. Heart Rate: Stimulus : Changes in blood pressure, O2, CO2, or pH levels Receptors: Baroreceptors (detect blood pressure changes) in the carotid sinus and aortic arch; chemoreceptors monitor blood chemistry Control Center: The medulla oblongata (cardiac center) processes signals Effectors : The autonomic nervous system (ANS) adjusts heart rate through the sympathetic nervous system (increases heart rate) or parasympathetic nervous system (decreases heart rate) Response : Heart rate increases during low O2 or low blood pressure (to circulate oxygen) and decreases when homeostasis is restored. Temperature Regulation Stimulus: Changes in body temperature (hyperthermia or hypothermia) Receptors: Thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus detect temperature fluctuations. Control Center: The hypothalamus processes this information and signals effectors Effectors and Responses: If too hot: Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) to release heat, and sweat glands produce sweat for cooling If too cold: Blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) to retain heat, and shivering generates warmth. Steps of a generic homeostatic feedback loop Stimulus : A change in the internal or external environment that disrupts homeostasis (eg. temperature change, pH levels, blood sugar levels) Sensor (Receptor) : Specialized cells or receptors detect the change and send information to the control center. Control Center (Integrator): Often the brain or endocrine glands, this component processes the information from the sensors and determines the appropriate response to restore balance. Effector: This component carries out the response to the stimulus as dictated by the control center. Effectors can be muscles or glands that help to counteract the change. Response: The action taken by the effectors to restore homeostasis. This could involve increasing or decreasing a physiological process (e.g. sweating to cool down or shivering to warm up) Feedback: The results of the response are monitored. If homeostasis is restored, the system maintains its state; if not, the loop may repeat, continuing to adjust until balance is achieved. How to evaluate data to determine the set point, error, and disturbance Identify the set point The set point is the optimal level or range that the system aims to maintain. To determine the set point: Gather baseline data: Collect data over a period to understand the normal range for the variable in question (e.g. body temp., BP, blood glucose levels) Analyze Trends: Look for patterns in the data to identify the average or median value that represents the stable condition of the system. Consult Literature: Reference established physiological norms or previous studies to confirm the typical set point for the variable. Assess Disturbance A disturbance is any factor or event that causes a deviation from the set point. To evaluate disturbances: Identify External and Internal Factors: Analyze the data for any external influences (e.g. environmental changes, dietary habits) or internal changes (e.g. illness, stress) that might have impacted the variable. Quantity Disturbance: Measure the magnitude and duration of the disturbance. This can be done by comparing the data points during the disturbance against the established set point. Monitor Changes: Track how the system responds to disturbances over time to assess their impact on maintaining homeostasis. WBC types and normal distribution values/ abnormal values and what those values indicate (infections/diseases) (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas) Neutrophils (50-70%) - First responders to infections, especially bacterial. High levels indicate bacterial infections, inflammation, or stress. Low levels can indicate bone marrow disorders or severe infections. Lymphocytes (20-40%) - Include B cells and T cells, important for immunity. High levels can suggest viral infections or leukemia, while low levels might indicate immune deficiency. Monocytes (2-8%) - Help with cleaning up dead cells and fighting infections. High levels can be linked to chronic infections or autoimmune diseases. Eosinophils (1-4%) - Involved in allergic reactions and fighting parasites. Elevated levels may indicate allergies or parasitic infections. Basophils (0.5-1%) - Release histamine during allergic reactions. High levels might be see in allergic conditions or blood disorders. Normal WBC Count Total WBC Count: 4000-11000 cells per microliter of blood (varies slightly by lab) Leukocytosis (High WBC): Can indicate infection, inflammation, stress, or leukemia Leukopenia (Low WBC): Can result from bone marrow disorders, viral infections, or autoimmune diseases Neutrophils: Banded vs Segmented Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells and play a crucial role in fighting infections. They exist in different stages of maturation: Banded Neutrophils (“Bands”) - Immature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a curved, unsegmented nucleus (band-shaped) Normal Range: 0-6% of total WBC count (~0-700/uL) Clinical Significance: Increased Bands (Bandemia) -> Indicates an acute bacterial infection or severe stress (e.g. sepsis). The bone marrow releases immature neutrophils in response to infection. Low Bands -> Not clinically significant unless the total WBC count is low, which could suggest bone marrow suppression. Segmented Neutrophils (“Segs”) - Mature Neutrophils Appearance: Have a segmented nucleus with 2-5 lobes Normal Range: 50-70% of total WBC count (~2500-7000/uL) Clinical Significance: High Segs (Neutrophilia) -> Suggests bacterial infections, stress, chronic inflammation, or leukemia Low Segs (Neutropenia) ->Can be caused by viral infections, bone marrow disorders, chemotherapy, or autoimmune diseases. Discuss the stages of cell cycle/mitosis-which stages are longest/shortest The cell cycle is a series of events that cells go through to grow and divide. It consists of two main phases: Interphase (Longest Phase) – Preparation for division Mitosis (Shortest Phase) – Actual cell division Stages of the Cell Cycle Interphase (90% of the Cell Cycle – Longest Phase) Interphase is the period of cell growth and DNA replication. It has three subphases: G1 Phase (Gap 1) The cell grows, produces proteins, and prepares for DNA replication. Longest variable phase; some cells may stay here indefinitely (e.g., neurons in G0 phase). S Phase (Synthesis) DNA replication occurs, ensuring each daughter cell gets a complete genome. Takes about 6-8 hours in human cells. G2 Phase (Gap 2) The cell prepares for mitosis by producing proteins and organelles. Shorter than G1 but still significant in length. Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Know proportional and inversely proportional relationships Direct (Proportional) Relationship When two quantities increase or decrease together at a constant rate, they are directly proportional. Inversely Proportional When one variable increases, the other decreases proportionally. Know relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion The rate of diffusion of a substance is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Lighter molecules diffuse faster Heavier molecules diffuse slower due to greater mass. Know relationship between filtration rate and pressure of fluid or weight of fluid Filtration rate is directly proportional to the pressure or weight of the fluid driving the filtration process. Higher pressure → Higher filtration rate Lower pressure → Lower filtration rate Know why men and women blood values are different The differences in blood values between men and women are due to biological, hormonal, and physiological factors

1. Functions of Muscles: • Movement: Muscles contract to produce movement in the body, such as walking, running, or even facial expressions. • Posture and Stability: Muscles help maintain posture and stabilize joints, preventing falls or loss of balance. • Heat Production: Muscle contractions generate heat, which is vital for maintaining body temperature. • Protection of Internal Organs: Muscles, particularly in the abdominal region, protect internal organs from injury. • Circulation of Blood and Lymph: Cardiac and smooth muscles play roles in circulating blood and lymph throughout the body. 2. Characteristics of Muscles: • Excitability (Responsiveness): Muscles can respond to stimuli (like nerve signals). • Contractility: Muscles can contract or shorten when stimulated. • Extensibility: Muscles can be stretched without damage. • Elasticity: Muscles can return to their original shape after being stretched or contracted. 3. Locations of Smooth, Cardiac, and Skeletal Muscle: • Smooth Muscle: Found in walls of internal organs (e.g., stomach, intestines, blood vessels). • Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart. • Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones and responsible for voluntary movements. 4. Events of Skeletal Muscle Contraction: 1. Nerve Impulse: A signal is sent from a motor neuron to the muscle. 2. Release of Acetylcholine: The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction. 3. Muscle Fiber Activation: Acetylcholine stimulates muscle fibers, causing an action potential. 4. Calcium Release: The action potential triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 5. Cross-Bridge Formation: Calcium binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin, which allows myosin heads to attach to actin. 6. Power Stroke: Myosin heads pull actin filaments inward, causing the muscle to contract. 7. Relaxation: ATP breaks the cross-bridge, and the muscle relaxes when calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 5. Isometric vs. Isotonic Contractions: • Isometric Contraction: The muscle generates tension without changing its length (e.g., holding a weight in a fixed position). • Isotonic Contraction: The muscle changes length while generating tension (e.g., lifting a weight). 6. Primary Functions of the Skeletal System: • Support: Provides structural support for the body. • Protection: Shields vital organs (e.g., brain, heart, lungs). • Movement: Works with muscles to allow movement. • Mineral Storage: Stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus. • Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow produces blood cells. • Energy Storage: Fat is stored in bone cavities. 7. Parts of a Long Bone: • Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone. • Epiphysis: The ends of the bone. • Metaphysis: Region between the diaphysis and epiphysis. • Medullary Cavity: Hollow cavity inside the diaphysis, containing bone marrow. • Periosteum: Outer membrane covering the bone. • Endosteum: Inner lining of the medullary cavity. 8. Inner and Outer Connective Tissue Linings of a Bone: • Outer: Periosteum. • Inner: Endosteum. 9. Structure of a Flat Bone: • Compact Bone: Dense bone found on the outside. • Spongy Bone: Lighter, less dense bone found inside, filled with red or yellow marrow. • No medullary cavity (unlike long bones). 10. Parts of the Osteon: • Central Canal (Haversian Canal): Contains blood vessels and nerves. • Lamellae: Concentric layers of bone matrix surrounding the central canal. • Lacunae: Small spaces containing osteocytes (bone cells). • Canaliculi: Small channels that connect lacunae and allow for nutrient exchange. 11. How Calcitonin, Calcitriol, and PTH Affect Blood Calcium: • Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity (bone resorption). • Calcitriol: Increases blood calcium by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines and bone resorption. • PTH (Parathyroid Hormone): Raises blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium. 12. Two Forms of Ossification: • Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue (e.g., flat bones of the skull). • Endochondral Ossification: Bone replaces a cartilage model (e.g., long bones). 13. Difference Between Appositional and Interstitial Growth: • Appositional Growth: Increase in bone diameter (growth at the surface). • Interstitial Growth: Increase in bone length (growth from within). 14. Different Joint Types: • Fibrous Joints: Connected by fibrous tissue (e.g., sutures of the skull). • Cartilaginous Joints: Connected by cartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs). • Synovial Joints: Have a fluid-filled joint cavity (e.g., knee, elbow). 15. Components of a Synovial Joint: • Articular Cartilage: Covers the ends of bones. • Synovial Membrane: Lines the joint capsule and produces synovial fluid. • Joint Capsule: Surrounds the joint, providing stability. • Ligaments: Connect bones to other bones. • Synovial Fluid: Lubricates the joint. 16. Hinge Joint Location: • Found in the elbow and knee. 17. Pivot Joint Location: • Found between the first and second cervical vertebrae (atlantoaxial joint). 18. Difference Between a Tendon and a Ligament: • Tendon: Connects muscle to bone. • Ligament: Connects bone to bone. 19. What is a Bursa? • A fluid-filled sac that reduces friction and cushions pressure points between the skin and bones or muscles and bones. 20. Three Types of Arthritis: • Osteoarthritis: Degeneration of joint cartilage and underlying bone, often due to wear and tear. • Rheumatoid Arthritis: Autoimmune disease causing inflammation in joints. • Gout: Caused by the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints. 21. Strain vs. Sprain: • A strain is damage to a muscle or tendon, whereas a sprain is damage to a ligament

You place a RBC (0.9%) into a 5% sugar solution. Which statement below is false? The RBC is hypotonic to the 5% solution Which is an example of a sensor in a negative homeostatic feedback loop? Chemoreceptor in carotid body For membrane fluidity experiment, the part of the experiment that actually validated that the membrane was fluid was: The labeled antibodies of the human and mouse intermixing An example of primary active transport would be a protein requiring ATP to transport sodium ions across the plasma membrane. True If a red blood cell is put in a solution and it hemolyzes, then the solution is considered to be: Hypotonic If your body temperature goes too high you can denature enzymes in your body. True What does an integrator do in a homeostatic pathway? Measures the signal coming in to a set point and send a signal out to the body Which of the following represents stages of the cell division (mitosis) in the proper sequence? Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase Which is not true for proteins? They are comprised of mostly cellulose What would be a disturbance for blood glucose homeostasis (normal blood glucose set point = 77mg/dL)? A permanent decrease in insulin production from the Islets of Langerhans Dr. Bio measures your total cholesterol and he reports back to you that your level is 300 mg/ 100 ml of plasma. You do what? Eat more oatmeal and flax to increase your HDL level. How do you make an unsaturated fatty acid? Perform a dehydration synthesis reaction on a saturated fatty acid Which is false for antioxidants? They speed up reactions in your body Which molecules do not dissolve in water? Non-polar Which molecule requires a transport protein to get through the plasma membrane (either channel or carrier protein)? Two of the answers are correct Interphase is considered to be part of normal cell division (mitosis). False What is the function of ATP? All of the answers are correct What are the three kinds of lipids? Triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids When glycerol combines with 3 fatty acids to form a triglyceride (fat), which of the following chemical reactions has occurred? Dehydration Synthesis How can you alter a protein’s shape? More than one answer is correct If a red blood cell is put into a solution and it maintains its shape, then the solution is considered to be: Isotonic Which molecule requires some type of transport protein to get through the plasma membrane? Sodium Ion Cofactors are molecules that activate enzymes. Which is not a cofactor? Mercury The nitrogenous bases found in DNA have complementary paring. Which pair is correct? C-G Which is not true for meiosis? Results in a gamete that is 2N In the diagram below the two solutions are separated by a semi permeable membrane. In which direction will net movement of water occur? From side A to side B Which is not a component of a DNA molecule: Ribose Sugar Phospholipids are similar to fatty acids except for? Phospholipids have a phosphate group Which is not true for cells? They allow diffusion of all molecules If you combine a molecule of glucose and fructose, which statement is true? You have formed sucrose Which is true for enzymes? Activity will increase until the enzyme becomes saturated What method would you use to get glucose into a cell along/down it’s concentration gradient (from high to low)? Facilitated Diffusion Which is not considered an integrator in a negative homeostatic feedback loop? Pancreas Which phase of the cell cycle is where cytokinesis takes place? Telophase What vitamin do we produce by sitting in the sun; it aids in calcium absorption from the small intestine? Vitamin D Why is it important to think about ion dissociation in the body? All the above In what order do you use macromolecules for fuel? Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins Which is false for cholesterol? It can dissolve in water/blood You place a RBC (0.9%) into a 0.5% sugar solution. Which statement below is false? The RBC is hypertonic to the 0.5% solution Which is not a membrane protein function? Protein synthesis Ingesting (eating) excess hydrophilic vitamins, such as vitamin C, results in excess vitamin C being stored in your tissues. False Diffusion is: The movement of molecules from an area of high molecular concentration to an area of low molecular concentration across a selectively-permeable membrane The hormone responsible for glucose uptake/removal from the blood is: Insulin What method would you use to get sodium ions into a cell against sodium’s concentration gradient (from low to high concentration)? Active Transport Which phase of the cell cycle is where the cell is functioning normally or doing its job? Interphase Evidence for mitochondria once being bacteria that our cells engulfed is: It has it’s own DNA Ionic molecules (ie NA+, K+) can diffuse straight through the plasma membrane. True What is the difference between cis and trans fatty acids? Cis fatty acids have hydrogens on the same side of the carbon double bond and trans fatty acids do not Cofactors are molecules that activate enzymes. Where do we get cofactors from? Vitamins found in fruits and vegetables RNA has what nitrogenous base in place of thymine? Uracil Large polar molecules (ie glucose) can diffuse straight through the plasma membrane? False Which lipoprotein is comprised of more protein and less cholesterol so it scavenges for cholesterol in the blood? High density lipoprotein A normal human being has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs/2N/diploid) in each somatic cell (body cell). True The three main compounds digested by the digestive system are? Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins Meiosis is the process in which our sex cells go from 46 chromosomes to 23 single chromosomes. True The effector in any negative feedback loop is usually: An organ/tissue If a red blood cell is put into a solution and it crenates (shrinks), then the solution is considered to be: Hypertonic Which statement is false for glycogen? It is a disaccharide Enzymes aid in digestion by? Lowering the energy required to break food apart Nonpolar molecules (ie CO2) can diffuse straight through the plasma membrane

parts of a feedback loop, positive & negative feedback loops, passive & active transport, osmosis, hypertonic/isotonic/hypotonic solutions

Isotonic solution

Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic Solutions

Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic IV Solutions

solutions- colligative properties (isotonicity)

Isotonicity

Unit 2: Cell Transport: Diffusion, Osmosis: Hypertonic, Isotonic & Hypotonic

fluid shifts in cells w/ hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic IV fluids

Key Concepts: Cell Theory, Cell Structure & Function, Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic, Cell Membrane, Microscopes, Passive vs. Active Transport, Diffusion, Osmosis, Energy (Potential vs. Kinetic), Photosynthesis & Cell Respiration (Aerobic vs. Anaerobic), Fermentation (Lactic Acid & Alcoholic) 1. Describe one similarity and one difference between the two terms in each of the following pairs: a. Eukaryote, prokaryote Eukaryote: Has a membrane-bound nucleus in the cell Prokaryote: No nucleus, DNA free-floating in the cell, can have flagellum Both: have cell membranes, have DNA, have ribosomes b. Cell wall, cell membrane Cell wall: rigid, not as flexible, more selective (harder for things to pass through) Cell membrane: fluid, flexible, selectively permeable Both: enclose cell, facilitate what goes in/out of cell c. Diffusion, facilitated diffusion Diffusion: movement of particles from high to low concentration Facilitated diffusion: movement of particles through channel proteins Both: are passive transport (no energy required), particles move from HIGH to LOW 2. Describe the structure of a phospholipid bilayer. There are 2 layers of phospholipids (consisting of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails) 3. Explain the following diagram using the terms: diffusion, cell membrane, low concentration, energy, high concentration. The water molecules are moving across the cell membrane to reach a state of equilibrium. The molecules move from HIGH to LOW concentration, so they move downwards across the membrane. This is an example of diffusion, or passive transport - this does not require energy because it is fueled by the difference in concentrations. 4a. What is the microscope magnification of the eye piece? scanning? low power? high power? ● Eye piece = 10x ● Scanning = 4x ● Low power = 10x ● High power = 40x b. If you were looking at an onion cell using the high power lens, what is the TOTAL MAGNIFICATION at which you are looking at the cell? High power = 40x Eye piece = 10x 40 x 10 = 400x Your total magnification would be 400x using the higher power objective lens. 5. Identify the difference between hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions: A = isotonic B = hypotonic C = hypertonic 6. How is active transport different from diffusion and facilitated diffusion? ● Active Transport = requires energy, molecules are forced AGAINST the gradient from LOW to HIGH concentration ● Diffusion = does not require energy, molecules move from HIGH to low concentration ● Facilitated diffusion = does not require energy, molecules move from HIGH to low concentration, but it requires the help of channel proteins (typically larger molecules) 7. Explain what is happening in the following picture. This is an example of ENDOCYTOSIS (Active Transport) - there is a chemical/nutrients being taken into the cell when it’s engulfed by the cell membrane (becomes a vesicle). 8. What is the difference between potential and kinetic energy? Give an example of each. a. Poyential energy - stored energy; e.g,glucose, a ball at the topof ahill b. Kinetic energy - energy of motion e.g., a car onthe freeway 9. Write out the full chemical reaction for PHOTOSYNTHESIS. What organelle is responsible for this? Chloroplast 10. Write out the full chemical reaction for CELL RESPIRATION. What organelle is responsible for this? Mitochondria 11. If we are at 400X magnification (field diameter is 450 micrometers), and there are 10 cells that fit across the diameter of what we’re seeing, what is the estimated size of ONE cell? 450 nanometers / 10 cells = 45 nanometers per cell 12. What is the role of the stomata? What is the role of the guard cells? Stomata role isgas exchange to let oxygen and carbondioxide pass through, as needed for key processes such as photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Guard cells arepairs of cells that surround the stomata and controlgas exchange by regulatingthe openingand closure of stomata. 13. What would cause guard cells to swell and open stomata? What would cause guard cells to shrink and close stomata? → Whentheplanthas anexcess of water, theguard cells swell and create anopeningfor the exchange ofgas → Whentheplanthas a lack of water, theguard cells shrink and close the openingfor the exchange ofgas 14. In fermentation, what relationship exists between the amount of available sugar and amount of carbon dioxide produced? → As more sugar is available, there will be more fermentationthathappens, and more carbondioxideproduced → There is a direct relationshipbetweenthose two factors 15. List the # of ATP produced by each of the following: Glycolysis = 2 ATP Krebs = 2 ATP ElectronTransport = 34 ATP 16. Explain one example of lactic acid fermentation. Explain one example of alcoholic fermentation. a. Lactic acid fermentation- heating milk and combiningit withtwo live bacteria cultures, resultinginthe bacteria breakingdownthe sugars in milk and releasinglactic acid (distinct tart/sour taste) b. Alcoholic fermentation- yeast and bacteria beingadded to tea and fruit (sugar), resultinginkombucha withethanol and carbondioxide bubbles

Lecture 6: Isotonic Solutions (10.28.24)

Chapter 9 – Skeletal Muscles 1. Connective Tissue Surrounding a Skeletal Muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds the entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers. 2. Histology and Function of Sarcomeres: • Histology: Sarcomeres are the structural and functional units of skeletal muscles, composed of repeating units between two Z-lines. • Function: They enable muscle contraction through the sliding filament mechanism. 3. Main Components: • Thin Filaments: Actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. • Thick Filaments: Myosin. 4. Function of Transverse Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: • Transverse Tubules (T-tubules): Transmit action potentials deep into the muscle fiber. • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores and releases calcium ions for muscle contraction. 5. Motor Unit: A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. 6. Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse where a motor neuron meets a muscle fiber, allowing for signal transmission. 7. Synapse: A junction between two neurons or a neuron and a muscle cell where communication occurs. 8. Actions of Acetylcholine (ACh): • Initiates muscle contraction by binding to receptors on the sarcolemma. • Degraded by: Acetylcholinesterase. 9. Neurotransmitter Released at Motor Axon Terminals: Acetylcholine. 10. Steps in Excitation-Contraction Coupling: • Action potential travels along sarcolemma. • Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. • Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move, exposing binding sites on actin. • Myosin heads form cross-bridges and initiate contraction. 11. Order of Muscle Fiber Contraction: • Action potential → Calcium release → Cross-bridge formation → Power stroke → ATP binding → Cross-bridge detachment. 12. Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: • Sliding filament theory: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. 13. Interaction of Actin, Myosin, and Calcium: • Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose myosin-binding sites on actin, enabling cross-bridge cycling. 14. Cross-Bridges: Myosin heads that bind to actin during contraction. 15. Contraction Types: • Isotonic: Muscle length changes. • Eccentric: Muscle lengthens under tension. • Isometric: Muscle tension without length change. • Concentric: Muscle shortens under tension. 16. Force of Muscle Contraction: • Controlled by motor unit recruitment. • Partial Tetany: Incomplete relaxation. • Fused Tetany: Sustained contraction without relaxation. 17. Bones and Muscles as Levers: • Fulcrum: Pivot point of the lever. 18. Synergist and Antagonist: • Synergist: Assists the primary mover. • Antagonist: Opposes the primary mover. 19. Muscle Atrophy: Wasting of muscle due to disuse or disease. 20. Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness by targeting ACh receptors. 21. Linea Alba: A fibrous structure running down the midline of the abdomen. 22. Origin, Insertion, and Actions of Specific Muscles: (Let me know which specific ones you’d like to focus on.) Chapter 17 – Digestive System 1. Alimentary Canal: A continuous muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus. 2. Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. 3. Breakdown and Absorption: • Carbohydrates: Begin in the mouth (amylase). • Proteins: Start in the stomach (pepsin). • Fats: Start in the small intestine (lipase, bile). 4. Layers of Alimentary Canal Walls: • Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa. 5. Accessory Organs: • Liver, pancreas, gallbladder. 6. Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Effects: • Sympathetic: Decreases digestion. • Parasympathetic: Enhances digestion. 7. Hormones: • Gastrin: Stimulates gastric juice secretion. • Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates bile and pancreatic juice. • Secretin: Stimulates bicarbonate secretion. 8. Peristalsis vs. Segmentation: • Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions. • Segmentation: Mixing movements. 9. Epiglottis Function: Prevents food from entering the trachea. 10. Heartburn: Caused by stomach acid reflux into the esophagus. 11. Stomach Parts: Fundus, body, pylorus. 12. Secretions: • Parietal Cells: Hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor. • Chief Cells: Pepsinogen. 13. Digestive Enzymes and Substances: • Amylase: Breaks down starch. • Pepsin: Digests proteins. • Trypsin: Protein digestion. • Lipase: Fat digestion. • Bile Salts: Emulsify fats. 14. Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas Functions: • Liver: Produces bile. • Gallbladder: Stores bile. • Pancreas: Produces enzymes and bicarbonate. 15. Anatomy of Bile Ducts: • Common hepatic, cystic, and pancreatic ducts form the common bile duct. 16. Functions of Large Intestine: • Absorption of water, vitamin production, and feces formation. 17. Defecation Reflex: Triggered by rectal wall distension. Chapter 18 – Nutrition 1. Excess Glucose Storage: As glycogen in the liver and muscles. 2. Tissue Requiring Glucose: Nervous tissue (brain). 3. Triglyceride Components: Glycerol and three fatty acids. 4. Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body