Controllability of Reinforcers and Learned Helplessness in Instrumental Behavior

Psych Eustress through Learned Helplessness

Controllability of Reinforcers and Learned Helplessness in Instrumental Behavior

A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat

A game of polo with a headless goat

A game of polo with a headless goat

7- How The Medical Model Creates Learned Helplessness- Mental Health Diagnoses - Anxiety Course 7/30 (Therapy in a Nutshell)

Key Vocabulary from 'A Doll's House': Spendthrift to Heedless

A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat

seligman helplessness- supporting study

CH. 14 Martin Seligman - Learned Helplessness

A Game Of Polo With A Headless Goat Flashcards

Infant Development (chapter 2) Alcohol Favorite toy as a transitional Baby’s wants and needs are the same thing Non-emotion induced tears- see two things water and salt. Emotion induced tears- water, salt,endorphins, and endoxified protiens. Toxins and endorphins reduce stress. Prolactin and oxytocin (frequency, duration, intensity) Egotistical response Bioevolutionary speaking crying is a survival instinct. Babies absorb about 10 times radiation than adults. Closer chromosomes with female chimp than a human male. culture dictates how much time we spend with our babies. Bowlby said that culture is so powerful that it can override instincts. Behaviorism theory can say that instinct do not exist in humans. About 77% of infants (12 m) 40 or more hours a week. About 8 of our babies are not raised with their parents. It matters how we raise our kids, because they will grow up and make choices for us. About 75%-80% of women said they were working for personal fulfillment. Women would rather be at work than be with their children at home. Snowball effect- To be able to read those cues, it takes times. so when you don’t spend time with them you wont pick up their cues. Quality time involves quantity. Having kid at work can also be counted as quality because they can still ask questions and make memories. It’s just about the amount of time you spend. They have the highest turnover rates than any other job Cultural feminist- belief that women are superior than men because they will never do things that women could. Feminism-men and women should be treated equally. Formula is digestible and allows you to sleep longer but when awake stomach hurts Ferberize a baby to make them sleep longer. Works for any age, put in crib, pat their back (3 time) and turn off lights and leave room Come back 20 minutes and pat back again and leave without turning light on. Next night 21, 22, 23, and increase each night. Can leave baby alone because they are starving and also since they don’t have a sense of time (they think you leave forever) We spoil babies (holding too much, pick up when crying) 1912 We spoil babies the exact why we spoil fruit, (leave them alone) Anecetipmen is also to ADHD, brain is not receiving signals Day 2 Relational play- understanding what goes with what. Stranger anxiety- you like people you don’t know at all (8-9 months) Categorical anxiety- they don’t like glasses etc. Visual cliff- she was born knowing not to go off cliff. Strange situation test- You can not measure attachment Other countries when given money for having a baby only have one baby. ( Sweden) Independence cannot be taught. Our need for sleep that drives what happens to our babies 80% world’s co-sleeping because everyone sleeps better. Moms slept with babies in the past. Needs have never changed for babies from very first baby to the ones present. According Erickson the first year is where we determine if the word is a safe place. Emotional needs for babies are as important as their physical needs. Letting a child cry it out is perceived as child abuse in other countries. You can be taken to jail and/or ticketed. (Other cultures) Formula feeding is super convenient 88% of white educated American pediatricians In American in curbs where SIDS occurred the most Royal rode to the unconscious - you will deal with the hard stuff when you are awake. Boy and girls develop differently All around the world, all babies start using words at 12 months If not start using words 12 months then might check hearing. Nouns are the first words Chomsky ( are speaking is innate) Talking to us or someone to talk for us The more you’re talked to the more you are verbal fluently The word no Bali is a country where babies that are perceived to be devine Refuse to babies on the ground up until the first 6 months 6 months ceremony 6 months can crawl, and sit up Breastfeeding, staying close proximity, co-sleeping Wearing your baby much more likely to read their cues Make them scared of the whole world Developmentally appropriate More child is held the happier they are, more nursed she will be happier (oxytocin, prolactin) We call this an ancient physiological interdependence. Advanced motor skill, more vertigo Baby is learning through the mothers experience Instinct Less crying ( more time together) Non-medicated births, baby-led breastfeeding, co-sleeping Colic can be withdrawal- formula fed - stomach issues - co-sleeping— miss mom Motor skills- body doing everything the mother is doing Lower vertigo, because you get a workout Separated from their mothers they cry Higher self esteem, they are more self -reliant- lower rates of anxiety and depression Strong sense of self Mesozoic era Two types of mammals -caching hide their young to protect them while they go look for food. Their babies can remain silent for long periods of time Their milk is very very high is protein very high is fat Caring mammals- their young are born helpless, they can’t regulate body temperature, they need constant contact with their mom for protection, their milk is low in fat and low in protein designed for continuous and on demand feeding Humans are caring mammals Monkeys, apes, Pigmies - long term breastfeeding 4-5 years Learn from experiences Babies worn long term !Kung- very very tall people They breastfeed 4-5 years Not having babies often Very sexual people Master gland- nursing often, gland stays silent Breastfeeding becomes spaced not they can have a child Not having periods Sleep 4-7 hours, period comes Baby nursing almost all the time It’s nutritional and its medicinal, and attachment formation More the baby suckle the more milk you make What kind of birth control pill- cannot breastfeed on birth control About 200 years ago the crib was introduced According to John bowlby separation form attachment figure can be physiological damaging Bowlbys primary attachment theory Tears and constant waiting for mom to return Very sad, no affect, low affect Deattachment- know she’s not going to come back Can be long term, Can impair child’s ability to form loving relationships Internal working model is our prototype for all later relationship Bowlby hypothesized in the 1940s that separation from mother can leave to chronic anxiety and depression It is impossible to measure neurotransmitters of a brain of a living human The number one cause of disability is depression Babies don’t have a concept to time Existential sense of self Dichotomy of the public and private sphere Is where you nurture and raise children Family was a man and a women and their children Three types of women Those that have to be mothers They love kids, they want take them back to their parents She doesn’t want kids, doesn’t like them Bought a house 10.5 years after they got married 600 and 25 ft 28 years old car Few months after marriage Car is no 20 years old It is not 600 and 25 ft If we breastfed for 12 months and you save 7,

Child and Adult Screening Tools: ASQ, HEADSS, M-CHAT, GAD-7, CAGE, PHQ-9, STOP-BANG

"A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat" - Annotations

(8-18) Biology Quiz - Harless

A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat Flashcards

Stress p. 475 PTSD p476 Selye and GAS P479-480 Learned helplessness p482 Type a p487

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.