Results for "damage"

A-Level Law - Psychiatric damage

DNA Damage Response

Overview of Lecture Topics on Brain Function and Damage

Hawkins v McGee and Expectation Damages

Lucy v. Zehmer Case Brief and Expectation Damages

Radiation Damage & Risks

SET 5 — DNA Damage & Repair

Damage (4)

Tissue Damage

Damage Control Coloring Book

DNA Damage and Repair

Chapter 7:6 Study Guide NERVOUS SYSTEM P179-187 Nervous System-complex, highly organized system that coordinates all the activities of the body. *The basic structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell. It consists of a cell body containing:  Nucleus  Nerve fibers called dendrites (carry impulses toward the cell body)  Single nerve fiber called axon (carry impulses away from the cell body) Many axons have a lipid covering called a myelin sheath, which increases the rate of impulse transmission and insulates and maintains the axon. The axon of one neuron lies close to the dendrites of many other neurons. The spaces between them are known as synapses. Special chemicals, called neurotransmitters, located at the end of each axon allow the nerve impulses to pass from one neuron to another. Nerves are a combination of many nerve fibers located outside the brain and spinal cord. Meninges are membranes or protective lining that covers the brain and spinal cord. Afferent, or sensory, nerves carry messages from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. Efferent, or motor, nerves carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Associative, or internuncial, nerves carry both sensory and motor messages. There are two main divisions to the nervous system: 1. 2. Central nervous system: consists of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: consists of the nerves. A separate division of the peripheral nervous system is the autonomic nervous system. This system controls involuntary body functions. *Brain-mass of nerve tissue well protected by membranes and the cranium, or skull. The main sections include:  Cerebrum-the largest and highest section of the brain. Responsible for: reasoning, thought, memory, speech, sensation, sight, smell, hearing, and voluntary body movement.  Cerebellum-section below the back of the cerebrum. Responsible for: muscle coordination, balance and posture, muscle tone.  Diencephalon-section between the cerebrum and midbrain. o Thalamus-acts as a relay center and directs sensory impulses to the cerebrum. o Hypothalamus-regulates and controls the autonomic nervous system, temperature, appetite, water balance sleep and blood vessel constriction and dilation. Also involved in emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure, pain and affection.  Midbrain-the section located below the cerebrum at the top of the brain stem. Responsible for conducting impulses between brain parts and for certain eye and auditory reflexes.  Pons-located below the midbrain and in the brain stem. Responsible for conducting messages to other parts of the brain; for certain reflex actions including chewing, tasting, and saliva production; and for assisting with respiration.  Medulla oblongata-the lowest part of the brain stem. Connects with the spinal cord and is responsible for regulating heartbeat, respiration, swallowing, coughing, and blood pressure. The spinal cord continues down from the medulla oblongata and ends at the first or second lumbar vertebrae. *The meninges are three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. 1. 2. 3. Dura mater-thick, tough, outer layer Arachnoid membrane-delicate and web like Pia mater-closely attached to the brain and spinal cord and contains blood vessels that nourish the nerve tissue. The brain has four ventricles, hollow spaces that connect with each other and with the space under the arachnoid membrane. The ventricles are filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid circulates continually between the ventricles and through the subarachnoid space. It serves as a shock absorber to protect the brain and spinal cord. It also carries nutrients to some parts of the brain and spinal cord and helps remove metabolic products and wastes. After circulating, it is absorbed into the blood vessels of the dura mater and returned to the bloodstream through special structures called the arachnoid villi. The peripheral nervous system consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches. Some of the cranial nerves are responsible for special senses such as sight, hearing, taste, and smell. The Autonomic nervous system is an important part of the peripheral nervous system. It helps maintain a balance in the involuntary functions of the body and allows the body to react in times of emergency. *There are two divisions to the autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body in times of emergencies. Prepares the body to act by increasing heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure and slowing activity in the digestive tract. This is known as the fight or flight response. Parasympathetic nervous system: After the emergency, this slows down the heart rate, decreases respirations, lowers blood pressure and increases activity in the digestive tract. Cerebral Palsy is a disturbance in voluntary muscle action and is caused by brain damage. Lack of oxygen to the brain, birth injuries, prenatal rubella, and infections can all cause cerebral palsy. Cerebrovascular Accident or CVA (stroke) occurs when the blood flow to the brain is impaired, resulting in a lack of oxygen and a destruction of brain tissue. CVA includes loss of consciousness; weakness or 1. 2. paralysis on one side of the body (hemiplegia); dizziness; dysphagia (difficulty swallowing); visual disturbances; mental confusion; aphasia (speech and language impairment); and incontinence. When a CVA occurs, immediate care within the first three hours can help prevent brain damage. Treatment with thrombolytic or “clot-busting” drugs such as TPA (tissue plasminogen activator) can dissolve the blood clot and restore blood flow to the brain. Aphasia is a speech or language impairment. There are different types. ALS is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Also called Lou Gehrig’s disease. This is a chronic degenerative neuromuscular disease. The cause is unknown. Carpal tunnel syndrome is a progressive, painful condition of the wrist and hand. It occurs when the median nurse is pinched or compressed. Concussions are traumatic brain injuries, usually from a blow to the head by an accident, injury or fall. The brain slides back/forward and forcefully hits against the skull. Think of it like a bruise on the brain. Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain and is caused by a virus, bacterium, or chemical agent. Epilepsy or seizure syndrome is a brain disorder associated with abnormal electrical impulses in the neurons of the brain. Hydrocephalus is an excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles and, in some cases, the subarachnoid space of the brain. It is usually cause by a congenital (at birth) defect, infection, or tumor that obstructs the flow of cerebrospinal fluid out of the brain. The condition is treated by the surgical implantation of a shunt (tube) between the ventricles and the veins, heart, or abdominal peritoneal cavity to provide for drainage of the excess fluid. Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges of the brain and/or spinal cord and is caused by a bacterium, virus, fungus, or toxins such as lead and arsenic. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive, disabling condition resulting from a degeneration of the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Neuralgia is nerve pain. Inflammation, pressure, toxins, and other disease cause it. Paralysis usually results from a brain or spinal cord injury that destroys neurons and results in a loss of function and sensation below the level of injury. Hemiplegia is paralysis on side of the body and is caused by a tumor, injury, or CVA. Paraplegia is paralysis in the lower extremities or lower part of the body and is caused by a spinal cord injury. Quadriplegia is paralysis of t harems, legs, and body below the spinal cord injury. Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, progressive condition involving degeneration of brain cells, usually in persons over 50 years of age

DNA Damage Types

CH 5 right hemisphere deficits, attentional, and neuropsychiatric deficits following right-hemisphere damage

CH 5 right hemisphere and communication, visuoperceptual deficits following damage

Tissue Modification (Aging and Damage)

Nerve Damage Practice

DNA Damage and Gene mutation

Unit 10 – Drugs for Central Nervous System (CNS) Problems (Comprehensive Study Guide – Nursing Pharmacology) ⸻ 🧩 Central Nervous System (CNS) Overview • CNS = Brain + Spinal Cord • Controls body movement, behavior, and cognitive function. • Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals between neurons. • Excitatory: Acetylcholine (ACh), epinephrine, norepinephrine • Inhibitory: Dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) ⚖️ Balance of dopamine and acetylcholine is critical for smooth movement. An imbalance leads to disorders like Parkinson’s Disease. ⸻ 🧍‍♂️ Parkinson’s Disease (PD) Cause • Progressive CNS disorder due to low dopamine production in the substantia nigra. • Too little dopamine → too much acetylcholine, causing impaired motor control. Key Symptoms Motor: • Tremors (“pill-rolling”) • Bradykinesia (slow movements) • Muscle rigidity, stiffness • Stooped posture, shuffling gait • Difficulty rising, “freezing in place” • Masklike facial expression Nonmotor: • Constipation, urinary frequency • Depression, anxiety, hallucinations • Sleep issues, fatigue • Memory problems ⸻ Drug Classes for PD Goal: Restore balance between dopamine and acetylcholine. 1️⃣ Dopamine Agonists Action: Mimic or increase dopamine. Improve movement, coordination, and muscle control. Examples: • carbidopa/levodopa (Sinemet, Rytary) • pramipexole (Mirapex ER) • ropinirole (Requip) • rotigotine (Neupro patch) Nursing Implications & Teaching: • Give 30–60 min before meals (empty stomach). • Avoid protein-rich foods (reduces absorption). • Monitor for orthostatic hypotension — rise slowly. • Don’t crush extended-release tablets. • Neupro patch: rotate sites, don’t reuse within 14 days. • Avoid vitamin B6 unless taken with carbidopa. • Takes 2–3 weeks for full effect. Side Effects: • Hypotension, headache, nausea, insomnia • Dyskinesia (abnormal movements) • “On/off effect” – medication wears off quickly • Long-term use → hallucinations, impulse control problems Adverse Effects: • Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: fever, rigidity, confusion • Psychosis, severe hypotension ⸻ 2️⃣ COMT Inhibitors Action: Block COMT enzyme → prolong dopamine activity. Examples: • entacapone (Comtan) • tolcapone (Tasmar) Nursing Implications: • Always give with carbidopa/levodopa. • Monitor liver function (q6 months) – risk of liver failure (especially tolcapone). • Harmless side effect: brown-orange urine. • Rise slowly to prevent hypotension. ⸻ 3️⃣ MAO-B Inhibitors Action: Inhibit MAO-B enzyme → prevents dopamine breakdown. Examples: • selegiline (Eldepryl) • rasagiline (Azilect) • safinamide (Xadago) Teaching: • Avoid foods high in tyramine → hypertensive crisis risk. (Aged cheese, wine, beer, cured meats, soy sauce, yogurt, avocados, bananas) • Monitor BP closely. • Avoid OTC decongestants or stimulants. • Can cause insomnia, dizziness, dry mouth, or constipation. ⸻ 🧠 Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) Cause • Progressive neurodegenerative disorder leading to memory loss, confusion, and poor judgment. • Loss of acetylcholine (ACh) and buildup of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Symptoms • Early: forgetfulness, confusion, mood changes. • Late: loss of reasoning, personality changes, inability to perform ADLs. ⸻ Drug Classes for AD 1️⃣ Cholinesterase Inhibitors Action: Block enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) → increases ACh → improves memory and function. Examples: • donepezil (Aricept) • rivastigmine (Exelon) • galantamine (Razadyne) Side Effects: • Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea • Loss of appetite, GI discomfort • Drowsiness, headache, insomnia • Muscle cramps, bradycardia Adverse Effects: • Dysrhythmias, GI bleeding, hallucinations • Overstimulation of parasympathetic system (too much ACh) Nursing Implications: • Give at bedtime to reduce nausea. • Monitor weight, HR, and mental changes. • Report black/tarry stools or vomiting blood. • Avoid OTC anticholinergics (they reduce effectiveness). ⸻ 2️⃣ NMDA Blockers Action: Block NMDA receptor → decreases glutamate activity → prevents neuron death. Example: • memantine (Namenda) Used in: Moderate to severe AD (often combined with donepezil). ⸻ ⚡ Epilepsy / Seizure Drugs (AEDs) Purpose Reduce excessive electrical activity in the brain and prevent seizures. Common AEDs: • phenytoin (Dilantin) – prevents neuron excitation • topiramate (Topamax) – broad-spectrum seizure control Topiramate Key Points: • Side effects: dizziness, drowsiness, taste changes, paresthesias (“pins and needles”) • Adverse: metabolic acidosis, ↑ ammonia → confusion, lethargy, vomiting • Monitor: serum bicarbonate & ammonia levels • Teaching: stay hydrated, report mental status changes, don’t crush tablets • Contraindicated in pregnancy (teratogenic) ⸻ 💥 Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Pathophysiology • Autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks myelin (fatty sheath around neurons). • Leads to nerve signal disruption → muscle weakness and loss of coordination. • Common type: Relapsing-Remitting MS (RRMS) – periods of flare-ups and remission. Common Symptoms • Fatigue, weakness, difficulty walking • Double vision or blurred vision • Tingling or numbness • Bladder/bowel dysfunction • Depression, poor concentration ⸻ Drug Therapy for MS 1️⃣ Biological Response Modifiers (BRMs) Action: Modify immune system activity and slow disease progression. Examples: • beta-interferons (Avonex, Betaseron, Rebif, Extavia, Plegridy) • glatiramer (Copaxone) • fingolimod (Gilenya) • teriflunomide (Aubagio) Side Effects: • Flu-like symptoms, headache, fatigue • Elevated liver enzymes, slow HR • Thinning scalp hair Nursing Teaching: • Rotate injection sites. • Monitor liver enzymes, CBC, and heart rate. • Avoid live vaccines. ⸻ 2️⃣ Monoclonal Antibodies Action: Destroy lymphocytes that attack myelin. Examples: • alemtuzumab (Lemtrada) • natalizumab (Tysabri) • ocrelizumab (Ocrevus) Side Effects: • Increased risk of infection • Headache, rash, fatigue • GI upset Nursing Teaching: • Given IV every few months to yearly. • Monitor for infusion reactions and infection signs. ⸻ 3️⃣ Neurologic Drugs Examples: • dimethyl fumarate (Tecfidera) – reduces CNS inflammation • dalfampridine (Ampyra) – improves walking by increasing nerve conduction Teaching: • Take daily; don’t crush tablets. • Watch for GI symptoms and dizziness. ⸻ 💪 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Description • Progressive, fatal disorder destroying motor neurons → paralysis. • Death usually occurs within 3–5 years of diagnosis. Drug Therapy Glutamate Antagonists Example: • riluzole (Rilutek, Tiglutik) Action: Inhibits glutamate release → slows neuron damage → prolongs life by months. Side Effects: • Weakness, nausea, dizziness • Liver toxicity (↑ liver enzymes) • Neutropenia, anemia Nursing Implications: • Monitor liver enzymes before and during therapy. • Report jaundice or dark urine. • Take on an empty stomach (1 hr before or 2 hrs after meals). • Avoid alcohol. • Don’t breastfeed while on this med. ⸻ ⚙️ Myasthenia Gravis (MG) Description • Autoimmune disease destroying acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junction. • Causes muscle weakness and fatigue, especially in eyes, mouth, throat. Symptoms • Ptosis (drooping eyelids) • Difficulty chewing/swallowing • Weakness in arms, legs, or respiratory muscles • Worsens with activity, improves with rest ⸻ Drug Therapy Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors Action: Prevent breakdown of acetylcholine → improves nerve–muscle communication. Example: • pyridostigmine (Mestinon) Dosage: Usually every 4–6 hours, depending on patient response. Side Effects: • Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea • Increased salivation, sweating • Bradycardia, hypotension Adverse: • Cholinergic crisis (too much medication): → extreme weakness, bradycardia, bronchospasm, respiratory arrest. Nursing Implications: • Use with caution in asthma, COPD, bradycardia. • Give doses at same time each day to maintain muscle strength. • Monitor for myasthenic vs. cholinergic crisis. • Give meds 30–45 min before meals to prevent aspiration. Patient Teaching: • Take missed dose ASAP (but skip if close to next dose). • Don’t double dose. • Avoid alcohol and sedatives. • Report muscle weakness or breathing difficulty. • Keep atropine available (antidote for cholinergic crisis)

Limits on Damages and Torts