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MIDTERM (LESSON 1) SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 2 WITH INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION INTRODUCTION Special crime investigation deals with the study of major crimes based on the application of special investigative technique. The study concentrates more on physical evidence, its collection, handling, identification and preservation in coordination with the crime laboratory. Special crime investigation involves a close relationship between the prober in the field and the crime laboratory technician. They work together as a team, reacting to and extending one another’s theories and findings both working patiently and thoroughly to solve a crime from their investigative discoveries. The present criminal justice system in our country, the court relies more on physical evidence rather than extra-judicial confession. WHAT IS INTERROGATION? Interrogation is a process of questioning by which police obtain evidence. The purpose of an interrogation is to elicit from the suspect or from his or her relatives or associate's information that they may be suppressing in order to protect the suspect from being subjected to criminal prosecution (Galero-Muftuoglu, 2017, p. 187). Interrogation process is largely outside the governance of law except for rules concerning the admissibility at trial of confessions obtained through interrogation and limitations on the power of police to detain the suspected persons against their will. THREE OBJECTIVES OF INTERROGATION Aside from obtaining information detrimental to a suspect’s case, the following are the three objectives of interrogation: 1. Establish the innocence of a suspect by clearing up facts that seem to point to guilt; 2. Obtain from the suspect or relatives and friends of the suspect: A. The names of accomplices; B. The facts and circumstances surrounding the crime; C. Follow-up leads provided unwittingly, or with ulterior motive, such as faking an alibi; D. The location of stolen goods; E. The location of physical evidence, such as documents, a weapon, or a burglar’s tool. 3. Obtain from the suspect alone: A. Admission – it refers to the express or implied statement tending to support the suspect’s involvement in the crime, but insufficient by itself to prove guilt; B. Confession – it pertains to an oral or written statement acknowledging it. WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW? Interview is defined as a structured conversation where one person or “interviewer” seeks to gather information from one another or the “interviewee” as part of any investigation or intelligence operation. The objective is to obtain accurate and reliable information while respecting human rights; eliciting facts is the aim, not confession. In the process of interviewing the suspects there is the added potential goal of obtaining an admission of guilt or a confession. However, this must not be the primary or sole purpose of interview as even a confession must be substantiated by information and evidence. This will reduce the likelihood of a false accusation and will also enable officers to present stronger case against the suspect, should a confession later be retracted. WHAT IS AN INVESTIGATIVE INTERVIEW? Investigative Interviewing, is a technique developed by practitioners to respond to the large body of scientific evidence that abusive and coercive techniques elicit unreliable information. It uses building rapport with the interviewee, which prevent abusive practices, and also improves the collection and reliability of information. It is a non-coercive approach using open questions to improve the flow of communication and information (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). GOALS OF INVESTIGATIVE INTERVIEW 1. Eliciting more accurate and reliable information during interviews. 2. Strengthening the capacity, efficiency, and professionalism of interviews. 3. Eliminating reliance on unlawful, ineffective, and counterproductive coercive questioning techniques. 4. Providing successful, affordable, and accessible methods and practices with minimal resources. 5. Delivering more effective information-gathering operations. 6. Fostering greater public trust in and cooperation with criminal justice institutions. 7. Ensuring that no person is subjected to coercion, torture or other forms of ill treatment. 8. Protecting the physical and mental integrity of all persons who interact with public authorities. REID METHOD Reid Method is also known as The Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation, is the interrogation technique widely used by police departments. The Reid Technique involves three components namely: 1. Factual Analysis 2. Behavioral Analysis Interview 3. Interrogation (Nine Steps) FACTUAL ANALYSIS It is an inductive approach where each individual suspect is evaluated with respect to specific observations relating to the crime. It relies not only on crime scene analysis, but also on information learned about each suspect. Its goal is establishing an estimate of a particular suspect’s probable guilt or innocence based on such things as the suspect’s biosocial status like: gender, race, occupation, marital status, etc., opportunity and access to commit the crime, and evaluation of physical and circumstantial evidence. It is also intended to identify characteristics about the suspect and the crime which will be helpful during an interrogation of the suspect believed to be guilty such as motive or the suspect’s personality type. BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS INTERVIEW It is a non-accusatory question and answer session, involving both standard investigative questions and structured “behavior provoking” questions to elicit behavior symptoms of truth or deception from the person being interviewed. The investigator first asks background questions, to establish personal information about the suspect and allow the investigator to evaluate the suspect’s normal verbal and nonverbal behavior. The investigator then asks behavior-provoking questions intended to elicit different verbal and nonverbal responses from truthful and deceptive suspects (Inbau, F., Reid, J.E., Buckley, J. et.al., 2013, p.63). The investigator will also ask some investigative questions during this stage. It provides objective criteria to render an opinion about the suspect’s truthfulness through evaluating responses to the behavior-provoking and investigative questions. INTERROGATION (NINE STEPS) An interrogation only occurs when the investigator is reasonably certain of the suspect’s involvement in the issue under investigation (Inbau, F., Reid, J.E., Buckley, J. et.al., 2013, p.99). This is composed of Nine steps, they are: 1. Direct, Positive Confrontation 2. Theme Development 3. Handling Denials 4. Overcoming Objections 5. Procurement and Retention of Suspect’s Attention 6. Handling the Suspect’s Passive Mood 7. Presenting an Alternative Question 8. Having the Suspect Relate Details of the Offense 9. Converting an Oral Confession to a Written Confession NINE STEPS 1. Direct, Positive Confrontation. This is where the investigator tells the suspect that the evidence demonstrates the person’s guilt. If the persons guilt seems clear to the investigator, the statement should be unequivocal. 2. Theme Development. This is where the investigator presents a moral justification(theme) for the offense, such as placing the moral blame on someone else or outside circumstances. The investigator presents the theme in a monologue and in a sympathetic manner. 3. Handling Denials. When the suspect asks for permission to speak at this stage, likely to deny accusations, the investigator should discourage allowing the suspect to do so. The innocent suspect are less likely to ask for permission and more likely to promptly and unequivocally deny the accusation. 4. Overcoming Objections. When attempts at denial do not succeed, a guilty suspect often makes objections to support a claim of innocence, phrases such as I would never do that because I love my job are commonly used. The investigator should generally accept these objections as if they where truthful, rather than arguing with the suspect, and use the objections to further develop the theme. 5. Procurement and Retention of Suspect’s Attention. The investigator must procure the suspect’s attention so that the suspect focuses on the investigator’s theme rather than on punishment. One way the investigator can do this is to close the physical distance between himself or herself and the suspect. The investigator should also channel the theme down to the probable alternative components. 6. Handling the Suspect’s Passive Mood. The investigator needs to intensify the theme presentation and concentrate on the central reasons he or she is offering as psychological justification and continue to display an understanding and sympathetic demeanor in urging the suspect to tell the truth. 7. Presenting an Alternative Question. The investigator should present two choices, assuming the suspect’s guilt and develop as a logical extension from the theme, with one alternative offering a better justification for the crime e.g., “Did you plan this thing out or did it just happen on the spur of the moment?” The investigator may follow the question with a supporting statement which encourages the suspect to choose the more understandable side of the alternative. 8. Having the Suspect Relate Details of the Offense. After the suspect accepts one side of the alternative thus admitting guilt, the investigator should immediately respond with a statement of reinforcement acknowledging that admission. The investigator then seeks to obtain a brief oral review of the basic events, before asking more detailed questions. 9. Converting an Oral Confession to a Written Confession. The investigator must convert the oral confession into a written or recorded confession. The website provides some guidelines, such as repeating Miranda Warnings, avoiding leading questions, and using the suspect’s own language. PEACE METHOD PEACE Model (Planning and Preparation, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure, Evaluation), developed in the United Kingdom in response to a number of documented forced confessions and wrongful convictions in the 1980s and 90s (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). STEP ONE: PLANNING AND PREPARATION It is one of the most important steps in investigative interviewing; without it, interviews may fall before they even begin. Planning – refers to the process of getting ready to interview, both mentally and strategically. Preparation – covers what needs to be ready prior to the interview such as the location of the interview, the environment, as well as technical and administrative matters. Essential Elements of Good Planning • Obtain as much background information as possible on the incident under investigation, including all relevant information on the person to be interviewed. • Assess what additional information is needed and how can it be best obtained. • Follow the legislation and associated guidelines and rules. • Understand the purpose of interview based on an investigation plan recognizing all the relevant and competing hypotheses to be explored, including the possibility that the suspect is innocent. • Prepare the technicalities of the interview (attending to exhibits, logistics, venue, equipment functioning, seating, lawyer, interpreter, and so on) (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). STEP TWO: ENGAGE AND EXPLAIN Engaging the interviewee and building rapport is the first step to encouraging a conversation. It is the most influential factor in ensuring productive interviews (Norwegian Center of Human Rights, 2017). At the outset the interviewee must be informed why they have been brought in for questioning and the formalities that apply. Officers must be aware that being interviewed can make people nervous and conversation that calms the interviewee may be needed. However, interviewers shall not work towards a pretend “friendship” with interviewees. The aim is to engage the interviewee so that a cooperative and relaxed relationship (one that stimulates memory and communication) is sustained throughout the interview (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 23). In engaging with the interviewee, the officer should seek the following (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017): 1. Create an empathetic and respectful relationship from the outset. 2. Explain the reasons, background, rights, formalities and procedure for the interview, including information about audio/video recording. 3. Establish certain ground rules by telling interviewees: • That what they have to say is important so they need to report everything they can and try their hardest no to leave anything out. • Not to edit as they go even if they believe some information has no relevance to the matter being investigated • That they need to concentrate because striving to retrieve memories can be hard work • That they should feel free to speak up if the officer: asks a question they do not understand; asks a question they do not know the answer to; misunderstand what the interviewee has said; asks a leading or inappropriate question. STEP THREE: ACCOUNT Interviewers should allow the interviewee to present their uninterrupted free account of the case or event under investigation; this is after establishing the ground rules for the interview. It is important that the interviewee is provided with the opportunity to present their side of the story, before more detailed questions are asked (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). Three main steps in getting the free account from the interviewee: 1. Introduce and explain the form and purpose of the free and uninterrupted account 2. Hand over the initiative (“give the floor”) to the victim, witness or suspect (as applicable) 3. Employ active listening while the interviewee presents the free and uninterrupted account Active listening assists the interviewer to establish rapport and help elicit a full and accurate account. Use TED’S PIE: Tell me, Explain, Describe Show Me-Precisely, In detail, Exactly. Using this approach helps build rapport and prevents the interviewer contaminating the account being given. The TED’S PIE approach makes use of encouragements/invitations to obtain an account (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). TYPES OF QUESTIONING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that allow the suspect to reply with longer, more detailed responses and lack direction from the interviewer. These can be questions such as; “What happened?” or questions that begin by asking the suspect to “tell”, “explain” or “describe” some event or situation (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p.26) CLOSED QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that require more definite and distinct answers. Examples include, “What time was that?”, “Who else was present?”, “What is his address?” such questions allow more control over what the suspect says and are useful where the suspect has left out information that you need. However, they can limit the account given (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26) FORCED-CHOICE QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that greatly restrict the possible answers to those that you have determined. The question may be “Was it a rifle or a handgun?” when the weapon may have been a shotgun. The suspect may simply pick one of the choices offered in order to please the interviewer or just move the questioning on. You should avoid these as they don’t suggest an open mind, and because answers may lie outside those conceived of by the interviewer. Do not limit the interview in this way (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26) MULTIPLE QUESTIONS Refers to the questioning where the interviewer asks more than one question at the same time. This can easily confuse an interviewee and make the answers given equally confusing to the interviewer. An example would be to ask, “When did he say that and what did he do and who else was present?” (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). LEADING QUESTIONS Refers to the questions that induce a particular reply and may be judged to have manipulated the interviewee. An example would be to ask, “You wanted to injure him, didn’t you?” They can lead the suspect to the point where they agree with what was being said even where they are uncertain or have no clear memory (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). STEP FOUR: CLOSURE As the interview comes to an end, the interviewing officer should explain what will happen next by giving the interviewee appropriate information about the next stages of the process: for example, inform suspects of potential pre-trial detention, tell witnesses whether or not they should expect to attend court, etc. (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017). Finally, the interviewee should be asked if they have any questions for the interviewing officer at this stage. This has little or no real effect if the communication has been coercive. However, if the interview has been conducted as outlined above, this question may add to the interviewee’s perception of having been treated fairly (Boyle, and Vullierme, 2015, p. 26). The goal of the closure are the following (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017): 1. Ensure there is a mutual understanding of the interviewee’s accunt by reviewing and summarizing it 2. Verify that all aspects have been sufficiently covered by checking that interviewees have given all the information they are able and willing to provide 3. Secure the integrity and dignity of the interview, the legitimacy of any subsequent criminal proceedings, and keep channels open for future communication. STEP FIVE: EVALUATION This is the phase wherein the interviewee evaluates the entire process of the interview and determines if his objectives were met. He also evaluates the method he used in acquiring useful statements from the witness, victim, or suspect and the effectiveness of said method. (Galero-Muftuoglu, 2017, p. 186) If the interview is evaluated by a supervisor, senior officer or colleague, make sure that the interviewing officers are given the opportunity to comment on their own performance, before the evaluator gives their points, starting with what was positive, moving on to what could be improved next time (Norwegian Center for Human Rights, 2017) LESSON 2 SPECIALIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION 2 WITH INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION MENDEZ METHOD The Mendez Principles, also known as the new Principles on Effective Interviewing for Investigations and Information Gathering. It was named after Juan Mendez, the Argentine lawyer, torture survivor and former UN Special Rapporteur. It is a concrete alternative to interrogation methods that rely on coercion to extract confessions. They provide guidance on obtaining accurate and reliable information in full respect of the human rights and dignity of all, including through the implementation of legal and procedural safeguards in the first hours of police custody (IRCT, 2021). The Mendez Method has three parts; Before, During, and After the interview. BEFORE THE INTERVIEW – ENSURING A NON-COERCIVE ENVIRONMENT Creating a non-coercive environment involves the respect and fulfillment of human rights from the first moment of contact between the interviewee and authorities. This allows law enforcement, intelligence, security or military officials to create conditions conductive to gathering accurate and reliable information during the interview, to fulfill State obligations under international law and to protect the lights of the interviewee. Unlawful and unprofessional behavior, and a lack of accountability, at the early stages of contact may taint the overall judicial process irreversibly (Mendez, 2016, p. 14-15). KEEPING THE INTERVIEW INFORMED Showing concern for the interviewee from the initial contact is the first opportunity for creating trust and rapport. This is more likely when an interviewee is given early, explicit explanations of why they have brought in for questioning., which formalities apply, and how the interview will proceed. Explaining procedures and likely activities is an early opportunity to display sincerity, provide predictability, to be respectful and attentive, and promote trust. The right to be informed by the detaining authority about the reasons of arrest applies regardless of manner, or the formality or informality with which an arrest is conducted, and regardless of the reasons for the deprivation of liberty (Mendez, 2016, p.15). Information regarding an interviewee’s rights and how to exercise them should be conveyed verbally, in clear, non-technical, and precise language upon arrest; and it should also be provided in writing by the detaining authority upon arrival at the place of detention in a language and format they understand. NOTIFICATION OR FAMILY OR THIRD PARTY A key safeguard for detainees is their right to promptly notify a family member, friend, or other person of their choice about the fact, place and circumstances of their detention. The detaining authority is responsible for enabling the communication with the third party and recording who has been notified and when the notification took place (Mendez, 2016, p. 16). Foreign nationals who are arrested or detained must be informed immediately of their right to communicate with a consular and diplomatic representative of their country or origin. Asylum seekers should be informed of their right to contact relevant international agencies. Contact is to be facilitated by the detaining authority (Mendez, 2016, p.17). ACCESS TO LAWYER All detained persons being interviewed have a right to a lawyer, including through legal aid, before any questioning by authorities – independent of their status or formal designation. Access to a lawyer is inextricably linked to the protection of rights, prevention of torture and other ill-treatment, and helps to protect against compelled self-incrimination. The interviewee is entitled to a lawyer of their own choosing, or to have one provided for them free of charge when the interests of justice so require. The presence of the lawyer is compulsory for detained children interviewed as suspects (Mendez, 206, p.17). PREPARATION FOR THE INTERVIEWER Once an individual has been identified as a person the authorities wish to interview, the appointed interviewer should start thorough preparations. Being fully prepared increases an interviewer’s ability to effectively communicate with the interviewees, and hence, the likelihood of obtaining reliable information. Before commencing an interview, it is crucial to maximize the investigative and evidentiary value of the information already gathered. When preparing for an interview - and throughout the process – interviewers should exercise caution to avoid ‘confirmation bias’. Interviewers should continually monitor their own emotions about the subject matter and their feelings towards the interviewee, to be able to project calm and self-control throughout the interview (Mendez, 2016, p.19). DURING THE INTERVIEW – ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING RAPPORT Effective interviewers are adaptable, listen carefully, communicate empathy, and adopt the ethos that non-coercive, humans, ethical, lawful and appropriate questioning serves the interest of all involved: the interviewer, the interviewee and the information-gathering authorities. They recognize that the interviewer’s role is to acquire the best possible information for decisions to be made. Only courts determine guilt or innocence. The development of rapport is essential in supporting effective information-gathering. During the interview, rapport entails establishing and maintaining a relationship characterized by: respect and trust; a non-judgmental mindset; non-aggressive body language; attentiveness; and patience (Mendez, 2016, p.20). INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES Active listening helps the interviewer process the information provided by the interviewee. By listening actively, the interviewer shows that they are following what the interviewee is saying and making efforts to understand. The interviewer takes care not to lead the interviewee inadvertently by using verbal or visual cues, including sounds, gestures or questions, which may be interpreted as agreeing or disagreeing with what the person is saying. Accurate summaries of what the interviewee has said may facilitate the positive progression of the interview and assist the interviewer and interviewee in recalling important details (Mendez, 2016, p.21). ENCOUNTERING RELUCTANCE Interviewers may encounter interviewees who are reluctant to talk and therefore should anticipate how they will handle such situations. Not wanting or agreeing to answer questions may be a deliberate choice. This decision must always be respected and has no bearing on the interviewer’s right to the presumption of innocence. Reasons why an interviewee might be reluctant to talk can include general anxiety or uncertainty about the process, especially if the person has never been involved in such a situation before. It is also possible that an interviewee maybe willing to provide information but is unable to do so. This can be because they did not have the relevant information to begin with, or they failed to register the details. Interviewers should not draw negative inferences from the interviewee’s failure or refusal to answer questions and should remain non-judgmental when an interviewee may make admission to crimes or convey embarrassing information (Mendez, 2016, p.21). SUSPENDING THE INTERVIEW It is appropriate and permissible for interviewers to suspend the interview in order to follow-up on information received or conduct additional enquiries. Other reasons to suspend an interview are (Mendez, 2016, p.22): 1. If the interviewee requires medical attention, 2. If a person originally interviewed as a witness becomes a suspect in the course of an interview; and 3. If the lawyer or the interviewee may request a break, for instance in order to rest or to consult in private. A refusal to accept such a request by the interviewer may affect the reliability of information gathered from the interview. AFTER THE INTERVIEW – ASSESSMENT AND ANALYSIS An effective interviewer should always end the interview respectfully and on a professional note. This increases the likelihood of keeping channels open for future communication, avoids possible misunderstandings and can improve trust in public institutions. The interviewer should review the information obtained with the interviewee and the lawyer, if involved; and, where a written record (as opposed to an audio/video recording) has been made, invite them to sign as a confirmation of the record’s accuracy. An amendments should be recorded, and if relevant, any refusal of the interviewee to sign the interview record. Once the interview has been completed, the interviewer ensures that the information provided during the process is subject to the appropriate level of privacy and of data protection. The interviewer should assess and analyze the following (Mendez, 2016, p.23): 1. The value and reliability of the information obtained and how it fits with known evidence, information gaps and other intelligence gathered. 2. What further enquiries are necessary in order to advance the investigation or operation; and 3. Whether all relevant safeguards were applied effectively. KINESIC INTERVIEW METHOD Kinesic Interview Method involves analyzing a person’s behavior to assess deception (Orlando, 2014). The study of kinesics focused on observable outward physical behavior of the body in order to ascertain the person’s current emotional state and the role the body plays in communicating the information. It states that, by understanding the vocabulary of the body language, along with the diagnosis of a person’s verbal output, an interviewer could more easily assess a person’s truthfulness or deception regarding current issues under discussion (Walters, 2002, p.2). It has two phases: the Practical Kinesic Analysis Phase; and the Practical Kinesic Interrogation Phase. PRACTICAL KINESIC ANALYSIS PHASE During the analysis phase, the interviewer uses several techniques to observe and analyze the subject’s behavior in order to determine the subject’s truthful and deceptive behaviors or at least to determine those areas most sensitive to the subject and, therefore, in need of further attention through verbal inquiry. It recognizes the cues of truthful and deceptive behavior generated by the subject through: 1. Verbal Cues – this involves the identification of symptoms of speech quality and content which give the interviewer the most productive body of data necessary to determine truth and deception. 2. Practical Kinesic Statement Analysis – assessment of truth and deception through the use of verbal cues coupled with methods of human recall and symptoms made self-evident in the statement taking process. 3. Body Language Cues – it refers to the observable body language cues of deception that are unbalanced or inconsistent in relation to the speech cues or emotional symptoms generated by the suspect at the same time. 4. Kinesic Subject Control – it refers to the various techniques available to the interviewer to take control and command of the interview environment. From proxemics to mirroring or the use of enhanced information gathering skills. 5. Confession Behaviors – it is the verbal and nonverbal acceptance cues generated by a subject who is prepared to give an admission of confession. PRACTICAL KINESIC INTERROGATION PHASE Practical Kinesis Interrogation Phase involves the interviewer determining the subject’s frame of mind in response to the interview stress. It also helps the interviewer in determining if the subject is suffering from personality disorder or psychosis. It also helps the interviewer determine the subject’s personality type which enables him to understand how the subject thinks and to determine the subjects’ strengths to be avoided and the weaknesses that can be exploited. Lastly it will help the investigator in determining the defense mechanism of the subject which keeps the subject from having to face the reality of his actions; and by identifying and disarming these mechanisms, the interrogator can obtain admission or confession (Walters, 2002, p.3). GUIDELINES OF CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION According to the PNP Operational Procedures Manual (2011), the duties of the Police during custodial investigation are as follows: 1. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, shall ensure that a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall, at all times, be assisted by counsel, preferably of his own choice (PNP, 2011, p.33). 2. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must inform the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation of the following rights under the Miranda Doctrine in a language or dialect known to and understood by him (PNP, 2011, p.33). a. That he has the right to remain silent; b. That if he waives his right to remain silent, anything he says can be used against him in court; c. That he has the right to counsel of his own; d. That, if he cannot afford one, he shall be provided with an independent and competent counsel; and e. That he has the right to be informed of such rights. 3. If the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation opted to give a sworn statement, the arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must reduce it in writing (PNP, 2011, p.34). 4. The arresting officer must ensure that, before the sworn statement is signed, or thumb marked, if there is inability to read and to write, the document shall be read and adequately explained to the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation by his counsel of choice, or by the assesting counsel provided to him, in the language or dialect known to him (PNP, 2011, p.34). 5. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must ensure that any extrajudicial confession made by a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall be (PNP, 2011, p.34): a. In writing; b. Signed by such person in the presence of his counsel; or c. In the latter’s absence, upon a valid waiver, and in the presence of any of the parents, elder brothers and sisters, his spouse, the municipal mayor, the municipal judge, district school supervisor, priest, imam or religious minister chosen by him. It is important to note that failure of the arresting officer, or the investigator, to observe the above mention procedures shall render the extrajudicial confession inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding (PNP, 2011, p.34) 6. The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must, under established regulations, allow the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation visits by or conferences with the following: a. any member of his immediate family, b. any medical doctor, c. priest, imam or religious minister chosen by him or by any member of his immediate family or by his counsel, or by any Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) duly accredited by the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) or by any international NGO duly accredited by the Office of the President. 7. After interrogation, a person under custodial investigation shall have the right to be informed of his right to demand physical examination by an independent and competent doctor of his own choice. If he cannot afford the services of a doctor of his own choice, he shall be provided by the State with a competent and independent doctor to conduct physical examination. If the person arrested is female, she shall be attended to preferably by a female doctor (PNP, 2011, p.34-35). The physical examination of the person under custodial investigation shall be contained in a medical report, which shall be attached to the custodial investigation report. LESSON 3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION AND CONFESSION Admissions and confessions are only legally valid if made voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently, with judicial or extrajudicial distinctions affecting their admissibility. DEFINITIONS AND DISTINCTIONS ●ADMISSION – A voluntary acknowledgment of a fact relevant to a case, which does not necessarily imply guilt. It can be judicial (made in court or pleadings) or extrajudicial (made outside court) and may be used as evidence against the declarant, though extrajudicial admissions are not conclusive and require proof of credibility and relevance. ●CONFESSION – A direct acknowledgment of guilt for the offense charged or any offense necessarily included therein. Confessions are always statements of criminal liability and can be judicial or extrajudicial. CORE LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 1. Voluntariness – the statement must be given freely, without coercion, force, intimidation, or inducement. Any confession obtained through threats, violence, or improper influence is inadmissible. 2. Knowledge and Intelligence – the accused must understand the nature and consequences of the statement. This ensures that the confession or admission is made knowingly and intelligently. 3. Assistance of Counsel – during custodial investigation or after arrest, the accused is entitled to competent and independent legal counsel. Extrajudicial confessions made without counsel may be inadmissible as they violate constitutional rights. 4. Judicial vs. Extrajudicial Confessions: Judicial Confession – Made in open court or in pleadings; sufficient for conviction without additional evidence. Extrajudicial Confession – Made outside court; requires corroboration by independent evidence to be admissible. 5. Relevance and Evidentiary Value – the admission or confession must relate to facts in issue and not be excluded by privilege or other legal rules. Judicial admissions are conclusive, while extrajudicial admissions are evaluated for credibility and weight by the court. 6. Corpus Delicti Rule – a confession alone is insufficient for conviction; the prosecution must establish that a crime has actually been committed. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION Admissions can be classified as judicial (made in the course of judicial proceedings) or extrajudicial (made outside of court). For Judicial Admissions: ●Can be made in pleadings, during trial via stipulations/manifestations, or at other stages such as pre-trial. ●Requirements: They do not require formal proof and are conclusive upon the party making them. They can only be contradicted by showing that they were made through a palpable mistake or that no such admission was made. For Extrajudicial Admissions: ●Must be relevant to the issue at hand. ●May be given in evidence against the maker (as an admission against interest), but are generally subject to regular rules of relevance and hearsay exceptions. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONFESSION Because confessions directly admit criminal liability and carry heavy penal consequences, they face strict constitutional and statutory safeguards—particularly when made outside of court (extrajudicial confessions). To be admissible as evidence in court, an extrajudicial confession must meet the following mandatory requirements: Voluntariness: ●The confession must be given freely and knowingly. It must not be the product of torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other influence that vitiates the individual's free will. Observance of Miranda Rights (Custodial Safeguards): ●If a person is under custodial investigation, they must be proactively informed in a clear, understandable manner of their rights: to remain silent, that any statement can be used against them, to have competent and independent counsel preferably of their choice, and to be provided free legal counsel if they cannot afford one. Assistance of Competent and Independent Counsel: ●The confession must be made with the active presence and genuine representation of independent counsel. ●Any waiver of the right to counsel must be made in writing and executed in the presence of the counsel. Form and Language: ● Extrajudicial confessions must ideally be in writing and signed (or thumb marked) by the confessant. ● They must be expressed clearly and interpreted/read to the accused in a language or dialect that they fully understand. The Exclusionary Rule: ● Under constitutional law, any confession obtained in violation of the right to counsel, Miranda rights, or through coercion is inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding (the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine). Corroboration (Corpus Delicti Rule): ● An extrajudicial confession alone is insufficient to sustain a criminal conviction. It must be corroborated by independent evidence of the corpus delicti (proof that the crime actually happened and someone is criminally responsible). CORE REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSIBILITY Consciousness of Impending Death: At the time the statement was made, the declarant must have been under the fixed belief that death was near and inevitable. Complete despair of recovery must be apparent, though the exact moment of death does not need to be immediate. Subject Matter: The statement must concern the cause and surrounding circumstances of the declarant's impending death. Statements about unrelated past grudges or matters are inadmissible. Case Type Limitation: Traditionally and under most statutory rules (such as the Philippine Rules of Evidence), dying declarations are admissible primarily in criminal prosecution for homicide, murder, or parricide where the death of the declarant is the subject of the charge. Competency of the Declarant: The declarant must have been a competent witness at the time the statement was made (i.e., possessing the capacity to perceive and communicate the event). Declarant Must Be Deceased: The declarant must have actually died, and their death must be the subject of the inquiry. CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS ●The accused has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to confess. ●Any admission or confession must respect due process and fundamental rights under the Philippine Constitution DYING DECLARATION VS. INDEPENDENT RELEVANT STATEMENT Dying declaration and independent relevant statement are both types of statements made by individuals that are considered to be reliable evidence in court. However, the key difference between the two lies in the circumstances under which they are made. A dying declaration is made by a person who believes they are about to die, and their statement is considered to be particularly trustworthy due to the belief that they have no reason to lie. On the other hand, an independent relevant statement is made by a person who is not in imminent danger of death, but their statement is still considered to be reliable because it is made independently of any external influence or coercion. Both types of statements play a crucial role in the legal system in determining the truth of a matter. PRINCIPLES OF A DYING DECLARATION ●A dying declaration is an out-of-court statement made by a victim regarding the cause and surrounding circumstances of their impending death. Under the rules of evidence, it serves as an exception to the hearsay rule and is admissible because of the principle of necessity (since the declarant is dead and cannot testify) and the trustworthiness presumption (that a person at the point of death has no motive to fabricate the truth). INDEPENDENT RELEVANT STATEMENTS ●An independent relevant statement (sometimes referred to as verbal acts or statements relevant independent of the truth of the facts stated) is an out-of-court statement offered in court not to prove the truth of the matter asserted, but simply to prove that the statement was made, heard, or that it had a legal effect. ●These statements are admissible in court if they meet the requirements of relevance and reliability. The declarant must have personal knowledge of the facts stated in the statement, and the statement must be relevant to the issues in the case. ●Because the truth of the utterance does not matter, these statements are not hearsay at all and are freely admissible. CATEGORIES AND EXAMPLES Statements as Verbal Acts / Constitutive Facts: Words that legally constitute a crime, contract, or civil wrong. ●Example: Words of defamation in a libel case, or words offering a bribe in a corruption case. The statement is proven just to show it was uttered. Statements Showing State of Mind / Knowledge / Notice: Words used to establish what someone knew, their belief, or their mental state. ●Example: Telling a defendant that a specific machine is dangerous. This is admissible not to prove the machine is dangerous, but to prove the defendant had notice or knowledge of the danger. Statements Showing Effect on the Hearer: Words that explain why a listener acted the way they did. ●Example: Threats made to a victim to explain why the victim acted in self-defense or fled in fear. Identifications: Out-of-court statements identifying a person (e.g., a witness pointing out a suspect in a lineup), which are relevant to establish identification independent of the factual narrative. COMPARISON Dying Declarations are considered highly reliable due to the belief that a person facing imminent death would not lie. On the other hand, Independent Relevant Statements do not carry the same level of reliability, as they are not made under the same circumstances. Dying Declarations are admissible as exceptions to the hearsay rule, while Independent Relevant Statements must meet the requirements of relevance and reliability to be admissible. Dying Declarations are made by individuals who believe they are about to die, and the statements pertain to the cause or circumstances of their impending death. In contrast, Independent Relevant Statements are made by individuals who have personal knowledge of the facts stated in the statement, and the statements are relevant to the issues in the case. Dying Declarations are often used in cases where the declarant's impending death is a central issue, such as murder trials. Independent Relevant Statements, on the other hand, are used to provide additional context or evidence to support a party's case. In some cases, both types of statements may be used in conjunction to strengthen a party's argument.

Auteurs et théories : Expliquer et comprendre (Durand et Weil, Dilthey, Colliot-Thélène, Aron)

Types of axons

Kaarten: 2.2.3. Nous avons le plaisir de vous inviter

Lecture 20: Growth Cones and Axon Pathfinding

regret doing sth – żałować, że coś się zrobiło I regret saying that – żałuję, że to powiedziałam regret not doing sth – żałować, że się czegoś nie zrobiło be in two minds about sth – wahać się; mieć mieszane uczucia co do czegoś be in sb’s best interests – leżeć w czyimś najlepszym interesie have sth in mind – mieć coś na myśli make a decision – podjąć decyzję regret a decision – żałować decyzji an argument in support of sth – argument przemawiający za czymś psychological discomfort – dyskomfort psychiczny mental torment – udręka psychiczna cause a great deal of sth – powodować bardzo dużo czegoś prevent sb from doing sth – powstrzymywać kogoś przed zrobieniem czegoś move on with your life – iść dalej ze swoim życiem get caught in a trap – wpaść w pułapkę an „if only” trap – pułapka myślenia „gdybym tylko…” at certain points in our lives – w pewnych momentach naszego życia be incapable of doing sth – nie być zdolnym do zrobienia czegoś strive to do sth – usilnie starać się coś zrobić strive as we may – choćbyśmy nie wiem jak się starali come to the right conclusion – dojść do właściwego wniosku know the outcome of sth – znać rezultat czegoś there is no way of knowing – nie ma sposobu, żeby wiedzieć based on information available at the time – na podstawie informacji dostępnych w danym momencie be kinder to ourselves – być dla siebie bardziej wyrozumiałym regardless of how things turn out – niezależnie od tego, jak potoczą się sprawy release ourselves from regret – uwolnić się od żalu an empowering thing to do – coś, co dodaje siły i sprawczości regardless of + noun / -ing – bez względu na + rzeczownik / czasownik z -ing notwithstanding + noun – pomimo + rzeczownik (formalnie) otherwise – w przeciwnym razie; inaczej nonetheless – niemniej jednak; mimo to have sth in common – mieć coś wspólnego What do X and Y have in common? – Co X i Y mają wspólnego? even if – nawet jeśli (warunek, możliwość) even though – chociaż; pomimo że (fakt) not have the faintest idea – nie mieć bladego pojęcia the clue lies in sth – wskazówka / rozwiązanie tkwi w czymś a pairing of names – zestawienie dwóch nazwisk a double act – duet występujący razem be known as sth – być znanym jako coś comedy duo – duet komediowy perform as one – występować jako jedność either … or … – albo … albo … on stage / on screen – na scenie / na ekranie do so – zrobić to; postąpić w ten sposób for their entire working lives – przez całe życie zawodowe form a close bond with sb – nawiązać bliską więź z kimś establish themselves as – ugruntować swoją pozycję jako a mainstay of TV entertainment – filar rozrywki telewizyjnej set up a joke – przygotować grunt pod żart less defined roles – mniej wyraźnie określone role odd-sounding – dziwnie brzmiący such a success – taki sukces remind sb of sth – przypominać komuś o czymś whatever the reason – niezależnie od powodu be here to stay – zadomowić się na dobre one of the performers – jeden z występujących other / another / the other – inni / kolejny, inny / ten drugi both … and … – zarówno …, jak i … secret languages – tajne języki undeniably – niezaprzeczalnie be around for a long time – istnieć od dawna deliberately – celowo; świadomie play on sb’s ignorance – wykorzystywać czyjąś niewiedzę communicate with a confidante – porozumiewać się z powierniczką utterance / utterances – wypowiedź / wypowiedzi develop early in childhood – rozwijać się we wczesnym dzieciństwie begin to develop – zacząć się rozwijać what later becomes a language – coś, co później staje się językiem it may seem illogical – może się wydawać nielogiczne communicate in a language different from … – porozumiewać się w języku innym niż … mother tongue – język ojczysty an insignificant number – nieznaczna liczba as a natural consequence of sth – jako naturalna konsekwencja czegoś at the same rate – w tym samym tempie mislead sb – wprowadzić kogoś w błąd understand each other – rozumieć się nawzajem without intervention – bez interwencji language development – rozwój językowy acquire a language – przyswoić język occasionally – od czasu do czasu into adulthood – aż do dorosłości toddlers – małe dzieci uczące się chodzić language input – bodźce / informacje językowe, które dziecko otrzymuje inability to do sth – niezdolność do zrobienia czegoś psychologically and linguistically – psychologicznie i językowo no deliberate attempt to do sth – brak celowej próby zrobienia czegoś caregivers – opiekunowie reinforce errors – utrwalać błędy cause setbacks – powodować opóźnienia / niepowodzenia have no difficulty in doing sth – nie mieć trudności z robieniem czegoś continue to use – nadal używać despair that … – rozpaczać, że …; tracić nadzieję, że … have no sense of direction – nie mieć orientacji w terenie whatsoever – w ogóle; jakikolwiek (dla podkreślenia) you are not alone – nie jesteś sam(a) a significant number of people – znaczna liczba osób find sth problematic – uważać coś za problematyczne navigate / navigating – nawigować / poruszać się; orientować się w terenie be off the beaten track – być poza uczęszczanymi szlakami be concerned about sth – martwić się czymś use sat-navs – korzystać z nawigacji satelitarnej refer to maps – korzystać z map / odwoływać się do map ask for directions – pytać o drogę find sth intimidating – uważać coś za onieśmielające avoid going to unfamiliar locations – unikać chodzenia w nieznane miejsca an intriguing new type of belt – intrygujący nowy rodzaj paska Bluetooth connection – połączenie Bluetooth when worn – kiedy jest noszony indicate which direction is north – wskazywać, gdzie jest północ be armed with a device – być wyposażonym w urządzenie relieve the demands on the eyes and ears – odciążyć oczy i uszy guide sb through vibrations – prowadzić kogoś za pomocą wibracji locate / pinpoint a place – zlokalizować / dokładnie wskazać miejsce take sb’s focus off sth – odwrócić czyjąś uwagę od czegoś around their waists – wokół ich talii track / path / way / road – szlak / ścieżka / droga / droga-ścieżka the potential of an innovation – potencjał innowacji make sth more straightforward – uczynić coś prostszym a decade or so ago – około dziesięciu lat temu sporting events – wydarzenia sportowe originally – pierwotnie sports teams – drużyny sportowe catchy chants – chwytliwe okrzyki acquire different associations – nabrać innych skojarzeń a sport in its own right – sport sam w sobie; pełnoprawna dyscyplina clubs are springing up everywhere – kluby pojawiają się wszędzie at an all-time high – na rekordowo wysokim poziomie a unique combination – wyjątkowe połączenie acrobatics – akrobatyka an additional sport – dodatkowa dyscyplina sportowa in addition to teamwork – oprócz pracy zespołowej participants point out that … – uczestnicy wskazują, że … improved fitness – lepsza kondycja fizyczna safety measures – środki bezpieczeństwa be thought to be risky – być uważanym za ryzykowne join a squad – dołączyć do zespołu be associated with sth – być kojarzonym z czymś come about – powstać; wydarzyć się a form of encouragement – forma zachęty synchronised dance routines – zsynchronizowane układy taneczne be echoed by the crowds – być powtarzanym przez tłumy popularity as a sport – popularność jako dyscyplina sportowa rapidly increasing – szybko rosnący competition entries – zgłoszenia do zawodów have its own distinctive style – mieć własny charakterystyczny styl group gymnastics – gimnastyka zespołowa a touch of glamour – odrobina blasku demand strength and coordination – wymagać siły i koordynacji solid teamwork – solidna współpraca zespołowa the benefits of getting involved – korzyści z zaangażowania się a sense of camaraderie – poczucie koleżeństwa; wspólnoty be considered paramount – być uważanym za najważniejsze bear this in mind – mieć to na uwadze hot desking – praca przy dowolnym dostępnym biurku flexible working hours – elastyczne godziny pracy spend quality time with family – spędzać wartościowy czas z rodziną impose a policy – narzucić politykę / zasady maximise the availability of sth – maksymalizować dostępność czegoś the practice has been in place for years – praktyka obowiązuje od lat questionable popularity – wątpliwa popularność contain personal belongings – zawierać rzeczy osobiste opt to accept sth – zdecydować się coś przyjąć beat the rush-hour traffic – uniknąć korków w godzinach szczytu it would not be unreasonable to … – nie byłoby nierozsądne, żeby … compelling reasons – przekonujące, ważkie powody office equipment – sprzęt biurowy establishments – instytucje / przedsiębiorstwa dedicated office space – własna, przypisana przestrzeń biurowa be deeply rooted in sb – być głęboko zakorzenionym w kimś primeval fear – pierwotny lęk fear of being unsettled – strach przed brakiem stabilizacji wanderer / traveller – wędrowiec / podróżnik have no base – nie mieć stałej bazy feel undervalued – czuć się niedocenianym bring a definite element of freedom – wnosić wyraźny element wolności not be given personal space – nie otrzymywać własnej przestrzeni lack of dedicated space – brak przydzielonego miejsca have / has / had – mieć; czasowniki pomocnicze czasów perfect not only + auxiliary + subject + verb, but … – nie tylko …, lecz także …; inwersja na początku zdania Not only did he love rock bands, but he was also a fan of classical music. – Nie tylko kochał zespoły rockowe, lecz był też fanem muzyki klasycznej. concede that + clause – przyznać, że … The director conceded that he had underestimated the power of the situation. – Dyrektor przyznał, że nie docenił powagi sytuacji. as though / as if + clause – jak gdyby; jakby He looked as though he hadn’t slept all night. – Wyglądał, jakby nie spał całą noc. be thought to have + past participle – uważa się, że ktoś/coś zrobił(o) coś w przeszłości The vegetable is thought to have been brought here. – Uważa się, że warzywo zostało tu sprowadzone. point out that + clause – wskazać / zwrócić uwagę, że … My manager pointed out that I had made many mistakes. – Kierownik wskazał, że popełniłam wiele błędów. had + past participle + before + past simple – czynność wcześniejsza przed inną czynnością przeszłą I had completed three questions before I realised my mistake. – Ukończyłam trzy pytania, zanim zdałam sobie sprawę z błędu. mistake – błąd We must get to the bottom of what is causing the leak. – Musimy ustalić, co powoduje wyciek. get to the bottom of sth – dotrzeć do sedna / przyczyny czegoś We had a discussion about how to approach the problem. – Dyskutowaliśmy o tym, jak podejść do problemu. have a discussion about sth – przeprowadzić dyskusję na temat czegoś Our parents were appreciative of our efforts. – Rodzice doceniali nasze wysiłki. be appreciative of sth – doceniać coś; być wdzięcznym za coś Our parents took notice of our efforts. – Rodzice zauważyli nasze wysiłki. take notice of sth – zwrócić uwagę na coś Our products will still be enjoyed in years to come. – Nasze produkty nadal będą cieszyć klientów w przyszłości. will still be + past participle – nadal będzie + imiesłów bierny; konstrukcja strony biernej We heard about the rescheduling of the event. – Usłyszeliśmy o zmianie terminu wydarzenia. hear about sth – usłyszeć o czymś My exam results exceeded my expectations. – Wyniki egzaminów przekroczyły moje oczekiwania. exceed sb’s expectations – przekroczyć czyjeś oczekiwania even if – nawet jeśli (warunek) even though – chociaż (fakt) although / though – chociaż; mimo że while – podczas gdy; chociaż; w czasie gdy as – jako; ponieważ; kiedy; tak jak (zależnie od zdania) as though – jak gdyby such – taki (np. such a success – taki sukces) whom – kogo; komu (formalnie) whether – czy (alternatywa / niepewność) whatever – cokolwiek; bez względu na to, co however – jednak; jakkolwiek therefore – dlatego; zatem otherwise – w przeciwnym razie regardless of – bez względu na in spite of / despite – pomimo (+ rzeczownik lub -ing) in addition to – oprócz; dodatkowo (+ rzeczownik lub -ing) about – o; około into – do środka; w (np. get into) out – na zewnątrz; część czasowników frazowych (np. point out) off – z dala; od (np. off the beaten track) still – nadal; wciąż already / yet – już / jeszcze; już (w pytaniach i przeczeniach) be / been / being – być / III forma czasownika „be” / forma -ing be in two minds ABOUT (not: of) – wahać się co do czegoś prevent sb FROM + -ing – powstrzymywać kogoś przed zrobieniem czegoś regret + -ing (past action) – żałować czegoś z przeszłości opt TO + verb – zdecydować się coś zrobić be concerned ABOUT – martwić się o coś be known AS – być znanym jako be thought TO BE – być uważanym za have difficulty IN + -ing – mieć trudności z robieniem czegoś allow sb TO DO sth – pozwolić komuś coś zrobić point AT sth – wskazać palcem na coś hear OF sb/sth – słyszeć o istnieniu kogoś/czegoś look AS THOUGH + clause – wyglądać, jak gdyby … in its OWN right – samo w sobie; niezależnie come ACROSS (find by chance) – natknąć się na coś set UP (organise) – zorganizować; założyć get TO the bottom OF – dotrzeć do sedna bear IN mind – mieć na uwadze incapable OF + -ing – niezdolny do zrobienia czegoś avoid + -ing (not: avoid to do) – unikać robienia czegoś regret to inform (formal news) – z przykrością informować be associated WITH – być kojarzonym z be linked TO – być powiązanym z be a fan OF – być fanem be thought TO HAVE DONE – uważa się, że ktoś coś zrobił wcześniej make sb DO sth – sprawić, że ktoś coś zrobi point OUT sth / point OUT that – wskazać coś / wskazać, że … hear ABOUT sth – usłyszeć o czymś hear FROM sb – dostać wiadomość od kogoś look LIKE + noun – wyglądać jak coś/ktoś come ABOUT (happen) – wydarzyć się; powstać come UP WITH (idea) – wpaść na pomysł set BACK (delay) – opóźnić; zahamować at an ALL-TIME high – na rekordowo wysokim poziomie make / reach / come to a conclusion – wyciągnąć / dojść do wniosku despair – rozpacz; rozpaczać intriguing – intrygujący wearer – osoba nosząca coś sat-nav – nawigacja satelitarna acrobatics – akrobatyka camaraderie – koleżeństwo; poczucie wspólnoty risky / riskiest – ryzykowny / najbardziej ryzykowny chant – skandowanie; przyśpiewka synchronised – zsynchronizowany glamour – blask; splendor compelling – przekonujący; silny maximise – maksymalizować dedicated – przeznaczony wyłącznie do czegoś unsettled – niespokojny; bez stałego miejsca traveller – podróżnik whatsoever – jakikolwiek; w ogóle (w przeczeniach) vibrate – wibrować; drgać vibrations – drgania; wibracje squad – drużyna; zespół coordination – koordynacja paramount – najważniejszy; nadrzędny cheerleading – sportowe układy dopingujące encouragement – zachęta; doping distinctive – charakterystyczny; wyróżniający association – skojarzenie; stowarzyszenie impose – narzucać questionable – wątpliwy rooted in – zakorzeniony w wanderer – wędrowiec lack of dedicated office space – brak przydzielonej przestrzeni biurowej confidante – powiernik / powierniczka toddler – małe dziecko uczące się chodzić reinforce – wzmacniać; utrwalać psychologically – pod względem psychicznym caregiver – opiekun psychological – psychologiczny torment – udręka; dręczyć conclusion – wniosek empowering – dodający sprawczości convincing – przekonujący strive – usilnie się starać regardless – niezależnie od bond – więź variation – odmiana; wariant faintest – najmniejszy (np. faintest idea) incorporate – uwzględniać; włączać straightforward – prosty; nieskomplikowany plausible – wiarygodny; prawdopodobny availability – dostępność armed with – wyposażony w utterance – wypowiedź significant – znaczący setback – niepowodzenie; przeszkoda deliberately – celowo; umyślnie mispronunciation – błędna wymowa linguistically – pod względem językowym acquire – nabyć; przyswoić mistrust – nieufność regret – żałować; żal discomfort – dyskomfort outcome – rezultat persuasive – przekonujący incapable – niezdolny notwithstanding – pomimo (formalnie) mainstay – filar; stały element perform – występować odd-sounding – dziwnie brzmiący refer to – odnosić się do; korzystać z intimidating – onieśmielający viable – wykonalny; realny breadth – szerokość; zakres acquired – nabyty; zdobyty relieve – odciążyć; przynieść ulgę input – wkład; informacje wejściowe insignificant – niezntaczący

Chapitre 2 (Thème 1A) - Expression des gènes L'ADN peut être lu par n'importe quelle bactérie. Notre ADN est « universelle », c'est la preuve que nous avons tous un ancêtre commun. La protéine est fabriqué par la lecture de ce gène. Doc 1 : Le doc 1 nous présente 2 photos, la première nous présente la localisation de l'ADN et des protéines, l'ADN en bleu se situe dans le noyau et les protéines en vert dans le cytoplasme. La 2ᵉ photo que le noyau possède des petits trous appelé « pore nucléaire » qui empêche le passage de l'ADN ou des protéines. L'ADN reste toujours dans le noyau. Les protéines sont-elles dans le cytoplasme. Ce sont les molécules trop grosses pour franchir les pores nucléaires de la membrane du noyau. Or, il existe d'autres molécules génétiques. l'ARN.III. La transcription de l’ADN en ARNm Transcription - ARN polymérase - Brin transcrit - Brin codant - ADN - Nucléotides - Alimentation - Recyclage - Noyau Traduction - Codon - Stop - Ribosome - ARNm Bilan : La transcription est le mécanisme qui permet de copier l'information d'un gène de l'ADN en ARN messager (ARNm). Elle est réalisée par une enzyme appelée ARN polymérase, qui utilise un seul brin de l'ADN comme modèle pour fabriquer une ARN complémentaire. L'ARNm obtenue quitte le noyau et sert à la fabrication d'une protéine dans le cytoplasme.

Kanji (alone)

cours 5 - croissance et guidage axonal

axon

Axon and Neuron Classification

BTEC Level 3 Applied Science – COMPLETE Biology Revision Pack This is your main revision guide based on all the B1, B2 and B3 notes you shared and everything we’ve been practising. It includes: * All the main topics you need to revise. * Definitions and key scientific terms. * Cell structures and their functions. * Specialised cells and immunity. * Tissues, lungs and circulation. * Muscles and the nervous system. * ECGs. * 6-mark practice questions. * Mnemonics with every letter explained. * Exam-ready answers. Important: Nobody can guarantee the exact questions that will come up. This covers the topics in your notes, including likely extended-answer areas. Use your official unit specification and teacher’s guidance alongside it. PART 1 – B1: CELL STRUCTURE 1. Levels of organisation Learn these definitions: Term Definition Cell Basic structural and functional unit of life. Tissue Group of similar specialised cells working together. Organ Different tissues working together to perform a function. Organ system Different organs working together. Organelle Specialised structure inside a cell. Mnemonic: Cats Take Over Sofas * Cats = Cells * Take = Tissues * Over = Organs * Sofas = Systems Order: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system. 2. Differentiation Definition: Differentiation is when an unspecialised cell develops into a specialised cell to perform a particular function. Examples: * A stem cell can become a red blood cell. * A stem cell can become a neurone. * A stem cell can become a muscle cell. 3. Prokaryotic cells Prokaryotes are cells without a nucleus. Learn these structures: Structure Function Nucleoid Contains circular DNA. Plasmids Small extra rings of DNA. 70S ribosomes Protein synthesis. Capsule Protection and attachment. Cell wall Made of peptidoglycan; provides support. Cell membrane Controls substances entering and leaving. Cytoplasm Where chemical reactions occur. Mnemonic: Naughty Pigs Rarely Chase Wolves * N = Nucleoid * P = Plasmids * R = Ribosomes * C = Capsule * W = Wall Remember: Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. 4. Eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells have: * A nucleus. * 80S ribosomes in the cytoplasm. * Membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells Structure Function Cellulose cell wall Support and protection. Chloroplasts Photosynthesis. Permanent vacuole Contains cell sap and helps maintain turgor. Tonoplast Membrane surrounding the vacuole. Amyloplasts Store starch. Plasmodesmata Connections between neighbouring plant cells. Pits Areas where the cell wall is thinner. Animal cells Animal cells can contain: * Nucleus. * Mitochondria. * Ribosomes. * Cell membrane. * Cytoplasm. * Centrioles. * Glycogen stores. Animal cells do not have cellulose cell walls or chloroplasts. 5. Organelles and their functions Organelle Function Cell membrane Controls movement of substances. Cytoplasm Site of many chemical reactions. Nucleus Contains DNA and controls cell activities. Nucleolus Produces ribosomal components. Ribosomes Protein synthesis. Rough ER Transports and processes proteins. Smooth ER Lipid and steroid synthesis. Golgi apparatus Modifies, sorts and packages proteins. Vesicles Transport substances. Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes. Mitochondria Aerobic respiration and ATP production. Centrioles Help organise spindle fibres during cell division. Chloroplasts Photosynthesis. Identifying organelles in micrographs * Mitochondria: oval shape with folded inner membranes called cristae. * Nucleus: large structure with a double membrane and pores. * Rough ER: flattened membranes with ribosomes attached. * Chloroplast: contains stacks of membranes called grana. * Golgi: curved, flattened membrane sacs. * Bacteria: no nucleus; DNA lies free in the cytoplasm. 6. Light and electron microscopes Light microscope Electron microscope Uses light. Uses an electron beam. Lower resolution. Higher resolution. Lower magnification. Higher magnification. Can view living cells. Specimens must be dead. Can show natural colours. Original images are monochrome. Generally cheaper. Generally more expensive. Mnemonic: M R C L * M = Magnification * R = Resolution * C = Colour * L = Living specimens 7. Magnification calculations Learn these three formulas: M=\frac{I}{A}I=M\times AA=\frac{I}{M} Where: * M = Magnification * I = Image size * A = Actual size Conversions: * 1 mm = 1000 µm * 1 µm = 1000 nm Always make sure your measurements use the same units. Stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule A graticule is calibrated against a stage micrometer. Mnemonic: Lazy Chefs Dice Meat * L = Line up the scales. * C = Count the divisions. * D = Divide the known measurement by the number of divisions. * M = Measure the specimen. Recalibrate when changing magnification. PART 2 – GRAM STAINING AND ANTIBIOTICS 8. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria Gram-positive Gram-negative Thick peptidoglycan wall. Thin peptidoglycan wall. No outer membrane. Has an outer membrane. Stains purple. Stains pink/red. Generally more susceptible to penicillin. Outer membrane provides additional protection. 9. Gram staining Mnemonic: Hot Cats In Autumn Spring * Hot = Heat-fix: Fix bacteria onto a microscope slide. * Cats = Crystal violet: Add purple dye. * In = Iodine: Helps retain the crystal violet. * Autumn = Alcohol: Removes the dye from Gram-negative bacteria. * Spring = Safranin: Counterstains Gram-negative bacteria pink. * Result: Gram-positive purple, Gram-negative pink/red. 10. Penicillin Penicillin prevents the formation of cross-links in bacterial peptidoglycan. This: * Weakens the bacterial cell wall. * Allows water to enter by osmosis. * Causes the bacterial cell to burst (lysis). Gram-positive bacteria are generally more susceptible because their peptidoglycan is more accessible. Gram-negative bacteria have an outer membrane that can prevent or reduce penicillin entry. PART 3 – B2: SPECIALISED CELLS 11. Palisade cells Adaptations: * Contain many chloroplasts for photosynthesis. * Tall, thin shape allows cells to be closely packed. * Found near the upper surface of leaves to receive light. * Large vacuole pushes chloroplasts towards the cell edge. * Thin cell wall helps carbon dioxide diffuse into the cell. 12. Sperm cells Mnemonic: A Happy Mouse Tails * A = Acrosome: Contains enzymes to digest the egg’s outer layers. * H = Haploid nucleus: Contains half the normal chromosome number. * M = Mitochondria: Produce ATP for movement. * T = Tail: Flagellum propels the sperm. * S = Streamlined: Helps movement through fluid. 13. Egg cells Adaptations: * Large cytoplasm containing nutrient reserves. * Haploid nucleus. * Zona pellucida surrounds the egg. * Cortical granules help prevent polyspermy after fertilisation. Polyspermy: When more than one sperm fertilises an egg. 14. Root hair cells Adaptations: * Long extension gives a large surface area. * Thin cell wall gives a short diffusion distance. * Cell sap helps water enter by osmosis. * Mitochondria supply ATP for active transport of mineral ions. 15. Red blood cells Adaptations: * Biconcave shape gives a large surface area. * No nucleus, leaving more room for haemoglobin. * Haemoglobin binds oxygen. * Flexible shape allows movement through narrow capillaries. * Thin centre gives a short diffusion distance. Oxygen + haemoglobin ⇌ oxyhaemoglobin. 16. White blood cells Two important types: Neutrophils * Have a lobed nucleus. * Engulf pathogens by phagocytosis. * Use lysosomes containing digestive enzymes. * Form part of the innate immune response. * Respond rapidly to infection. Lymphocytes * Have a large, round nucleus. * B lymphocytes can develop into plasma cells. * Plasma cells produce specific antibodies. * Some become memory cells. * T lymphocytes can destroy infected cells. 17. Neutrophils and lymphocytes: similarities and differences Similarities mnemonic: Both Need Protection * Both = Both are white blood cells. * Need = Both contain a nucleus. * Protection = Both protect against pathogens. Differences: Neutrophils Lymphocytes Phagocytosis. Specific immune response. Lobed nucleus. Large, round nucleus. Digest pathogens using lysosomes. B cells produce antibodies. Part of innate immunity. Part of adaptive immunity. Respond rapidly. Can form long-lasting memory cells. 18. Antibodies and immunity Learn: * An antigen is a molecule recognised by the immune system. * Antibodies have binding sites complementary to specific antigens. * Antibodies bind to antigens. * This can neutralise pathogens or help other immune cells destroy them. * B lymphocytes can form memory cells. * Memory cells help produce a faster secondary response. 19. Allergies Mnemonic: A M H * A = Allergen enters the body. * M = Mast cells become involved. * H = Histamine is released. Histamine causes: * Blood vessels to widen. * Capillaries to become more permeable. * Fluid to move into tissues. * Swelling, itching and other allergic symptoms. 20. Transplant rejection Learn this sequence: * Donor cells have antigens. * The recipient recognises these antigens as foreign. * T lymphocytes recognise the foreign cells. * T cells attack the transplanted tissue. * Tissue matching reduces the chance of rejection. * Immunosuppressants reduce immune activity. PART 4 – B3: TISSUES AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 21. Epithelial tissues Squamous epithelium * Thin, flat cells. * Usually one cell thick in diffusion surfaces. * Short diffusion distance. * Found in alveoli and capillary walls. Columnar epithelium * Tall cells. * Can contain goblet cells. * Ciliated columnar cells move mucus. * Microvilli in the gut increase surface area for absorption. Endothelium * Lines the inside of blood vessels. * Smooth surface reduces friction. * Thin capillary endothelium allows diffusion. 22. COPD COPD stands for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Two important conditions: Emphysema Mnemonic: Smoking Makes Every Alveolus Lose Elasticity * Smoking causes inflammation. * White blood cells release elastase. * Elastase destroys alveolar walls. * Alveoli merge into larger air spaces. * Surface area decreases. * Elastic recoil decreases, causing difficulty breathing out. Chronic bronchitis Mnemonic: Irritated Goblets Make Coughing Increase * I = Inflammation of the bronchi. * G = Goblet cells enlarge. * M = More mucus is produced. * C = Cilia become damaged. * I = Infections become more common. * B = Bronchi narrow, causing coughing and breathing difficulties. 23. Alveoli adaptations Mnemonic: Silly Tigers Carry Very Massive Eggs * S = Surface area: Millions of alveoli create a large surface area. * T = Thin walls: One cell thick, short diffusion distance. * C = Capillaries: Dense network maintains the concentration gradient. * V = Ventilation: Refreshes alveolar air. * M = Moisture: Gases dissolve in the lining. * E = Elasticity: Allows stretching and recoil. 24. Gas exchange Oxygen moves: Alveolar air → Alveolar epithelium → Basement membrane → Capillary endothelium → Plasma → Red blood cell → Haemoglobin. Carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction. Fick’s law Diffusion is faster when: * Surface area is larger. * Diffusion distance is shorter. * Concentration gradient is steeper. 25. Breathing and inhalation Mnemonic: Dancing Rabbits Visit Pretty Amazing Places * D = Diaphragm contracts and flattens. * R = Ribs move upwards and outwards. * V = Thoracic volume increases. * P = Pressure inside lungs decreases. * A = Air moves into the lungs. * P = Pressure equalises as air enters. Exhalation * Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped. * External intercostal muscles relax. * Ribs move downwards and inwards. * Thoracic volume decreases. * Pressure inside the lungs increases. * Air moves out. 26. Smoking effects Mnemonic: Cigarettes Make Every Lung Suffer * C = Cilia damaged. * M = More mucus produced. * E = Excess infections. * L = Loss of alveolar walls. * S = Surface area reduced. * S = Smoking reduces lung elasticity. Smoking also damages blood vessel endothelium and increases atherosclerosis risk. PART 5 – ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND CIRCULATION 27. Atherosclerosis High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: Dirty Money’s Find Pipes Narrowing Today * Dirty = Damage: The endothelium lining the artery becomes damaged. * Money’s = Macrophages: Macrophages enter the artery wall and engulf LDL cholesterol. * Find = Foam cells: Macrophages become foam cells, forming fatty streaks. * Pipes = Plaque: Fatty material builds up and forms a plaque. * Narrowing = Narrowing: The plaque narrows the artery and reduces blood flow. * Today = Thrombus: A blood clot can form and block the artery, potentially causing a heart attack or stroke. Risk factors * Smoking. * High blood pressure. * High LDL cholesterol. * Diabetes. * Age. * Poor diet. PART 6 – MUSCLES 28. Skeletal muscle structure Learn these terms: Structure Function Sarcolemma Muscle fibre cell membrane. Sarcoplasm Muscle fibre cytoplasm. Myofibrils Contain actin and myosin. Sarcomere Contractile unit between Z lines. Actin Thin filament. Myosin Thick filament. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Stores and releases calcium ions. Mitochondria Produce ATP. Skeletal muscle fibres are: * Long and cylindrical. * Multinucleate. * Striated. * Packed with myofibrils. 29. Sarcomere changes Structure During contraction A band Stays the same length. I band Shortens. H zone Shortens. Z lines Move closer together. Sarcomere Shortens. Mnemonic: A stays Always the same; I and H get Hit. 30. Sliding filament theory High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: Clever Tigers Make Powerful Animals Run * Clever = Calcium: Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. * Tigers = Troponin: Calcium binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin. * Make = Myosin: Myosin binds to actin, forming cross-bridges. * Powerful = Power stroke: Myosin pulls actin towards the centre of the sarcomere. * Animals = ATP: ATP binds to myosin, causing detachment. * Run = Reset: ATP is broken down, re-cocking the myosin head. Remember: Actin and myosin do not shorten; they slide past one another. 31. Slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres Mnemonic: Slow Red Runners Have Endurance Slow-twitch Type I * Red. * Lots of myoglobin. * Many mitochondria. * Dense capillary supply. * Mainly aerobic respiration. * Resist fatigue. * Used for endurance activities such as marathons. Fast-twitch Type II * Paler. * Less myoglobin. * Fewer mitochondria. * Lower capillary density. * More reliance on anaerobic energy pathways. * Contract quickly and powerfully. * Fatigue more quickly. * Used for sprinting and weightlifting. Remember: Slow = Stamina. Fast = Force. PART 7 – NERVOUS SYSTEM 32. Motor neurone structure Mnemonic: Dogs Can Always Nip Toes * D = Dendrites receive signals. * C = Cell body contains nucleus. * A = Axon carries the impulse. * N = Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in myelin. * T = Terminals release neurotransmitters. Myelin sheath * Insulates the axon. * Increases conduction speed. * Schwann cells produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system. * Nodes of Ranvier allow saltatory conduction. 33. Resting potential Mnemonic: Three Naughty Cats Keep Purring Inside * Three = 3 sodium ions pumped out. * Naughty = 2 potassium ions pumped in. * Cats = Pump uses ATP. * Keep = Potassium ions leak out. * Purring = Negative proteins remain inside. * Inside = Inside becomes approximately −70 mV. 34. Action potential Mnemonic: Silly Dogs Run Happily Past Houses * S = Stimulus reaches threshold (−55 mV). * D = Depolarisation begins as sodium channels open. * R = Rising potential as sodium enters. * H = High positive potential, around +40 mV. * P = Potassium channels open and potassium leaves. * H = Hyperpolarisation before returning to resting potential. Important extra facts * Action potentials are all-or-nothing. * A stronger stimulus increases frequency, not the size of the action potential. * The refractory period prevents immediate re-firing. * It helps ensure impulses travel in one direction. 35. Myelinated and non-myelinated neurones Mnemonic: Myelin Jumps Fast * Myelinated neurones have a myelin sheath. * They have nodes of Ranvier. * Impulses jump from node to node. * This is called saltatory conduction. * Non-myelinated neurones conduct continuously. * Myelinated neurones are faster and generally use less energy for impulse transmission. 36. Synaptic transmission High-priority 6-marker Mnemonic: All Clever Vikings Drink Really Slowly * All = Action potential: Arrives at the presynaptic knob. * Clever = Calcium: Calcium channels open and calcium enters. * Vikings = Vesicles: Vesicles release neurotransmitter by exocytosis. * Drink = Diffusion: Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft. * Really = Receptors: Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors. * Slowly = Sodium: Sodium channels open and sodium enters, causing depolarisation. Extra: * Neurotransmitter is removed by enzymes or reuptake. * Synapses are one-way because receptors are on the postsynaptic membrane. 37. Acetylcholine Mnemonic: Release, Bind, Sodium, Enzyme, Recycle * Release: Acetylcholine is released from vesicles. * Bind: It binds to postsynaptic receptors. * Sodium: Sodium channels open. * Depolarisation: The membrane becomes less negative. * Enzyme: Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine. * Recycle: Choline is taken back into the presynaptic neurone. 38. Agonists and antagonists Mnemonic: Agonist Activates; Antagonist Blocks. * Agonist binds to a receptor and activates it. * It can mimic a natural neurotransmitter. * Antagonist binds without activating the receptor. * It blocks the natural neurotransmitter from binding. Examples: * Nicotine: agonist at certain acetylcholine receptors. * Curare: antagonist at acetylcholine receptors. Other examples to know: * L-dopa is converted into dopamine. * SSRIs block serotonin reuptake. * Botulinum toxin prevents acetylcholine release. * Organophosphates inhibit acetylcholinesterase. 39. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Main role Acetylcholine Muscle contraction and signalling. Glutamate Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. GABA Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Dopamine Movement and reward. Serotonin Mood, sleep and appetite. Noradrenaline Alertness and attention. 40. Parkinson’s disease Mnemonic: Dying Dopamine Makes Movement Slow * Dopamine-producing neurones in the substantia nigra degenerate. * Less dopamine is released. * Movement control is disrupted. * Symptoms include tremors, rigidity and slow movement. * L-dopa can be converted into dopamine in the brain. * Dopamine agonists can also help manage symptoms. 41. Depression and SSRIs Mnemonic: Serotonin Reuptake is Controlled, Levels Last * Serotonin is involved in mood regulation. * Serotonin is released into the synaptic cleft. * Normally, some serotonin is taken back into the presynaptic neurone. * SSRIs block serotonin reuptake transporters. * Serotonin remains in the synaptic cleft longer. * It can continue binding to postsynaptic receptors. PART 8 – ECGs 42. ECG waves Mnemonic: Please Quit Rushing, Stay Tranquil * P wave: Atrial depolarisation. * QRS complex: Ventricular depolarisation. * T wave: Ventricular repolarisation. Remember: * Atrial depolarisation is followed by atrial contraction. * Ventricular depolarisation is followed by ventricular contraction. * Ventricular repolarisation is followed by ventricular relaxation. 43. Heart rate calculations \text{Heart rate}=\frac{60}{\text{R-R interval in seconds}} Example: If the R-R interval is 0.8 seconds: 60\div0.8=75\text{ bpm} Know: * Tachycardia: over 100 beats per minute. * Bradycardia: under 60 beats per minute. * Regular R-R intervals indicate a regular rhythm. PART 9 – ALL THE 6-MARK QUESTIONS TO PRACTISE These are the extended-answer questions I would use to test your knowledge. They are based on your notes, not guaranteed predictions. Your 30-question exam checklist Tick each question once you can answer it without notes. 0/30 All 1. B1 – CellsCompare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (6 marks) 2. B1 – CellsCompare light and electron microscopes. (6 marks) 3. B1 – MicroscopyExplain how to calculate magnification and actual size. (6 marks) 4. B1 – Gram stainingDescribe how Gram staining is carried out and how it identifies bacteria. (6 marks) 5. B1 – AntibioticsExplain why penicillin is generally more effective against Gram-positive bacteria. (6 marks) 6. B2 – Specialised cellsExplain how a sperm cell is adapted for fertilisation. (6 marks) 7. B2 – Specialised cellsExplain how a red blood cell is adapted to transport oxygen. (6 marks) 8. B2 – ImmunityExplain how phagocytes destroy pathogens. (6 marks) 9. B2 – ImmunityExplain how lymphocytes defend the body against pathogens. (6 marks) 10. B2 – ImmunityCompare the similarities and differences between neutrophils and lymphocytes. (6 marks) 11. B2 – ImmunityExplain how allergies occur. (6 marks) 12. B2 – ImmunityExplain how organ transplants can be rejected. (6 marks) 13. B3 – TissuesExplain how atherosclerosis develops. (6 marks) 14. B3 – LungsExplain how emphysema affects gas exchange. (6 marks) 15. B3 – LungsExplain how chronic bronchitis develops. (6 marks) 16. B3 – LungsExplain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange. (6 marks) 17. B3 – LungsExplain the mechanism of inhalation. (6 marks) 18. B3 – LungsExplain how smoking damages the respiratory system. (6 marks) 19. MusclesExplain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction. (6 marks) 20. MusclesCompare slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres. (6 marks) 21. NervesExplain how resting potential is maintained. (6 marks) 22. NervesExplain how an action potential is generated. (6 marks) 23. NervesCompare myelinated and non-myelinated neurones. (6 marks) 24. NervesExplain how an impulse travels along a myelinated neurone. (6 marks) 25. NervesExplain how a synapse transmits a nerve impulse. (6 marks) 26. NervesExplain how acetylcholine works at a synapse. (6 marks) 27. NervesExplain the difference between agonists and antagonists. (6 marks) 28. NervesExplain how Parkinson’s disease affects the nervous system. (6 marks) 29. NervesExplain how SSRIs affect synaptic transmission. (6 marks) 30. ECGsExplain what the P wave, QRS complex and T wave represent. (6 marks) Reset checklist PART 10 – IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS TO MEMORISE Term Meaning Diffusion Net movement of particles from high to low concentration. Osmosis Net movement of water across a partially permeable membrane from higher to lower water potential. Active transport Movement against a concentration gradient using energy. Phagocytosis Engulfing and digesting pathogens. Antigen Molecule recognised by the immune system. Antibody Protein that binds to a specific antigen. Depolarisation Membrane potential becomes less negative. Repolarisation Membrane potential returns towards its resting value. Hyperpolarisation Membrane potential becomes more negative than resting potential. Synapse Junction between neurones where signals are transmitted. Neurotransmitter Chemical messenger released at a synapse. Exocytosis Release of substances when vesicles fuse with a cell membrane. Atheroma Fatty plaque in an artery wall. Thrombus Blood clot formed within a blood vessel. Sarcomere Contractile unit of a myofibril. Oxyhaemoglobin Haemoglobin bound to oxygen. COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Differentiation Process by which cells become specialised. PART 11 – THE MOST IMPORTANT MNEMONICS TO KNOW Here is your quick podcast-style recap. Read these aloud every day. Topic Mnemonic Cell organisation Cats Take Over Sofas Prokaryotic structures Naughty Pigs Rarely Chase Wolves Graticule calibration Lazy Chefs Dice Meat Gram staining Hot Cats In Autumn Spring Sperm cell A Happy Mouse Tails Atherosclerosis Dirty Money’s Find Pipes Narrowing Today Neutrophil and lymphocyte similarities Both Need Protection Alveoli Silly Tigers Carry Very Massive Eggs Inhalation Dancing Rabbits Visit Pretty Amazing Places Chronic bronchitis Irritated Goblets Make Coughing Increase Emphysema Smoking Makes Every Alveolus Lose Elasticity Sliding filament Clever Tigers Make Powerful Animals Run Slow-twitch fibres Slow Red Runners Have Endurance Motor neurone Dogs Can Always Nip Toes Action potential Silly Dogs Run Happily Past Houses Resting potential Three Naughty Cats Keep Purring Inside Synapse All Clever Vikings Drink Really Slowly Parkinson’s Dying Dopamine Makes Movement Slow ECG Please Quit Rushing, Stay Tranquil PART 12 – HOW TO REVISE THIS FOR YOUR EXAM I would revise in this order: Your 7-day revision plan * Day 1 – Cells Cell structures, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, microscopes and magnification. * Day 2 – Specialised cells Sperm, egg, root hair, palisade and red blood cells. * Day 3 – Immunity Neutrophils, lymphocytes, antibodies, allergies and transplant rejection. * Day 4 – Lungs and circulation Alveoli, inhalation, COPD, smoking and atherosclerosis. * Day 5 – Muscles Sarcomeres, sliding filament theory and muscle fibre comparisons. * Day 6 – Nervous system Resting potential, action potentials, synapses, neurotransmitters and Parkinson’s. * Day 7 – Exam practice Attempt the 6-mark questions without notes, then check your answers. My final advice For every 6-marker, learn: * The mnemonic. * What every letter stands for. * The scientific explanation. * The correct order of events. You have already shown that you can remember the atherosclerosis sequence and explain it in your own words. That’s exactly how you should practise the rest. Don’t just memorise the mnemonics. Make sure you understand what each biological process actually means. That’s what will help you answer the question even if the examiner words it differently.

Sweet Swan of Avon

Grade 10 Hospitality Studies — Exam memo Section A: Short questions (40 marks) Question 1.1 — Multiple choice Question Answer 1.1.1 B — Pancake 1.1.2 A — Too much baking powder was used 1.1.3 A — Glaze 1.1.4 C — Marinade 1.1.5 D — Tortellini 1.1.6 C — 250 ml (likely expected answer) 1.1.7 C — Purchasing the same amount of ingredients 1.1.8 B — Earl Grey 1.1.9 C — Déglacé 1.1.10 B — Maître d'hôtel Question 1.2.1 — Cheese matching Write only the letter next to each number. Question Answer 1.2.1.1 Very hard cheese B — Pecorino 1.2.1.2 Soft, ripened cheese D — Brie 1.2.1.3 Semi-hard cheese G — Emmental 1.2.1.4 Processed cheese E — Sliced cheese 1.2.1.5 Special cheese C — Feta Question 1.2.2 — Pasta matching Question Answer 1.2.2.1 Italienne D — Pasta with butter and grated cheese 1.2.2.2 Napolitaine E — Tomato sauce and Parmesan 1.2.2.3 Cannelloni B — Filled pasta tubes with béchamel sauce and cheese 1.2.2.4 Lasagne A — Layers of pasta, mince and béchamel sauce with cheese 1.2.2.5 Milanese C — Tomato sauce, ham and cheese Question 1.3 — Culinary terminology Question Answer 1.3.1 Mirepoix — a mixture of carrots, celery and onions used to flavour stocks and sauces. 1.3.2 Sifting — passing dry ingredients through a sieve. 1.3.3 Grating — rubbing food against a grater. 1.3.4 Skimming — removing fat from the surface of a liquid. 1.3.5 Dusting — sprinkling icing sugar or castor sugar over a cake. 1.3.6 Mageu (mahewu) — fermented maize-meal drink or sour porridge. 1.3.7 Crêpe — a thin French pancake used to wrap fillings. 1.3.8 Durum wheat — the wheat commonly used to make dried pasta. 1.3.9 Approximately 1 kg of cooked pasta. 1.3.10 Fruit purée / coulis — fruit that has been puréed, with or without sugar. Question 1.4 — Choose the correct answers 1.4.1 Combination heat cooking methods A — Braising C — Pot roasting The question asks for three, but these are the two clear combination methods in the options shown. Check this question against your class notes because the paper may contain an error. 1.4.2 Types of cooking equipment The options shown are all examples of cooking equipment: A — Bain-Marie B — Combi oven C — Steamer D — Convection oven E — Bratt pan The instruction says to choose three, so I can't confidently identify the intended three from this list alone. 1.4.3 Types of coffee A — Espresso B — Cappuccino D — Mocha Latte E — Café Mocha Rooibos is not coffee. Section B: Kitchen and restaurant operations, hygiene, safety and security (40 marks) Question 2.1 — Burns and first aid 2.1.1 Give one reason why Lungelo could have burnt herself with the wet cloth. (2) Water in the wet cloth can heat up and produce steam, which can burn the skin. The wet cloth transfers heat more readily than a dry insulating cloth. 2.1.2 Classify the type of burn. (1) - A thermal burn, caused by heat. 2.1.3 Explain how to treat her burn. (3) Cool the burn under cool running water for 20 minutes. Remove jewellery or clothing near the burn if it is not stuck to the skin. Cover it loosely with a sterile, non-fluffy dressing. Do not apply ice, butter or toothpaste. 2.1.4 Provide the aim of first aid. (2) Preserve life. Prevent the condition from worsening and promote recovery. 2.1.5 Distinguish between a chemical and an electrical burn. (2) Chemical burn: Caused by corrosive chemicals damaging the skin or tissues. Electrical burn: Caused by an electric current passing through the body. Question 2.2.1 — Preparation apparatus (6) A — Colander Use: To drain water from cooked pasta or rinse fruit and vegetables. B — Palette knife Use: To spread icing or lift and turn delicate foods. C — Spatulas / scrapers Use: To scrape mixtures from bowls or fold ingredients together. Question 2.3 — Franchises 2.3.1 Three advantages and three disadvantages (6) Advantages Disadvantages An established brand attracts customers. Franchise fees and royalties must be paid. Training and support are provided. The owner has limited independence. An established business model reduces some risks. Strict rules limit changes to products and operations. 2.3.2 Identify three franchises. (3) McDonald's KFC Nando's Question 2.4 — Three types of formal accommodation (3) Hotels Motels Guest houses Question 2.5 — Why must departments work closely together? (4) To ensure efficient communication and coordination. To prevent mistakes and delays. To provide good customer service. To ensure all departments work towards the same goals. Question 2.6 — Parts of a chef's uniform 2.6.1 Chef's jacket (3) Protects the skin from heat and minor splashes. Helps maintain a professional appearance. Can be removed or changed when dirty to maintain hygiene. 2.6.2 Safety shoes (2) Protect the feet from hot liquids, falling objects and sharp items. Provide grip to reduce slipping on wet or greasy floors. Question 2.7 — Three basic methods of pest control (3) Physical or mechanical control — traps, screens and sealing entry points. Chemical control — approved pesticides. Biological control — using natural enemies of pests. Section C: Nutrition, menu planning and food commodities Your screenshots don't show every page of Question 3 clearly. I can answer the visible questions from Question 4 on page 10. Question 4.3 — Salt water test 4.3.1 Evaluate the freshness of the egg and motivate your answer. (2) The egg appears to be standing upright at the bottom of the glass, so it is likely older rather than very fresh. As eggs age, the air cell grows and the egg becomes more buoyant. A fresh egg generally sinks and lies flat. An older egg may stand upright. An egg that floats is generally very old and should be checked carefully before use. Question 4.4 — Guidelines for purchasing eggs (4) Choose clean eggs with uncracked shells. Avoid eggs with unpleasant odours. Buy eggs from a reputable supplier. Check the expiry or best-before date and ensure they have been stored appropriately. Question 4.5 — Three ways to store eggs (3) Store in a refrigerator at a consistent, cool temperature. Keep in their carton to protect them and reduce absorption of odours. Store away from strong-smelling foods and use older eggs first. Question 4.6.1 — Properties of a French omelette (3) Pale golden or lightly coloured on the outside. Soft, moist and tender inside. Neatly folded, with no burnt patches. Question 4.7 — Difference between butter and margarine (2) Butter: Made from milk fat or cream. Margarine: Made mainly from vegetable oils or other permitted fats. Question 4.8 — Two bacteria used in yoghurt manufacture (2) Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus Streptococcus thermophilus Question 4.9 — Three heat-treatment methods applied to dairy products (3) Pasteurisation Sterilisation Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment Question 4.10 — Four milk substitutes (4) Soya milk Oat milk Almond milk Rice milk Question 4.11 — Correct way to freeze mince (3) Divide the mince into meal-sized portions. Place in airtight, freezer-safe packaging and flatten into thin portions. Label with the date and freeze promptly at −18 ∘ C or colder. Question 4.12 — Two cooking methods for minced meat (2) Frying Stewing Question 4.13 — How to correctly pour tea (3) Place a tea strainer over the cup if using loose-leaf tea. Pour the brewed tea carefully into the cup without spilling. Serve with milk, sugar or lemon according to the customer's preference.

Christian Beliefs: Sin, Salvation, and Atonement

PRAXIS MUSIC 5113 STUDY GUIDE Music Content Knowledge PURPOSE This study guide reviews important concepts in music theory, music history, performance, aural skills, music education, notation, and technology. It is a study resource, not a guarantee of the exact questions that will appear on the exam. SECTION 1: MUSIC THEORY 1. THE MUSICAL ALPHABET The musical alphabet consists of seven letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G After G, the letters begin again at A. A sharp raises a note by one semitone. A flat lowers a note by one semitone. A natural cancels a previous sharp or flat. A half step is the smallest interval in standard Western equal-tempered music. A whole step equals two half steps. Important natural half steps: E to F B to C Examples of whole steps: C to D F to G A to B 2. MAJOR SCALES The major scale follows this pattern: WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF, WHOLE, WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF C MAJOR: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C Half steps occur between E and F and between B and C. G MAJOR: G, A, B, C, D, E, F-sharp, G D MAJOR: D, E, F-sharp, G, A, B, C-sharp, D F MAJOR: F, G, A, B-flat, C, D, E, F B-flat MAJOR: B-flat, C, D, E-flat, F, G, A, B-flat 3. KEY SIGNATURES Order of sharps: F, C, G, D, A, E, B Order of flats: B, E, A, D, G, C, F Common major keys: C major has zero sharps or flats. G major has one sharp, F-sharp. D major has two sharps, F-sharp and C-sharp. A major has three sharps, F-sharp, C-sharp, and G-sharp. E major has four sharps. B major has five sharps. F-sharp major has six sharps. C-sharp major has seven sharps. F major has one flat, B-flat. B-flat major has two flats, B-flat and E-flat. E-flat major has three flats. A-flat major has four flats. D-flat major has five flats. G-flat major has six flats. C-flat major has seven flats. Relative major and minor keys share the same key signature. Examples: C major and A minor have no sharps or flats. G major and E minor have one sharp. F major and D minor have one flat. 4. SCALE DEGREES Scale degree 1: Tonic Scale degree 2: Supertonic Scale degree 3: Mediant Scale degree 4: Subdominant Scale degree 5: Dominant Scale degree 6: Submediant Scale degree 7: Leading tone Scale degree 8: Tonic, one octave higher In C major: 1 = C 2 = D 3 = E 4 = F 5 = G 6 = A 7 = B 8 = C The tonic is the tonal center and often feels like home. The dominant is scale degree 5 and commonly resolves to the tonic. The leading tone is scale degree 7 and commonly resolves upward to the tonic. 5. INTERVALS An interval is the distance between two pitches. Perfect unison: C to C Minor second: C to D-flat Major second: C to D Minor third: C to E-flat Major third: C to E Perfect fourth: C to F Tritone: C to F-sharp Perfect fifth: C to G Minor sixth: C to A-flat Major sixth: C to A Minor seventh: C to B-flat Major seventh: C to B Perfect octave: C to the next C Intervals have a number and a quality. Interval numbers include second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and octave. Interval qualities include major, minor, perfect, augmented, and diminished. 6. TRIADS AND CHORDS A triad contains three notes, usually stacked in thirds. Major triad: Root, major third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E, G. Minor triad: Root, minor third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G. Diminished triad: Root, minor third, diminished fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G-flat. Augmented triad: Root, major third, augmented fifth. Example: C, E, G-sharp. In a major key, the usual triad pattern is: I = major ii = minor iii = minor IV = major V = major vi = minor vii diminished = diminished Uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords in this pattern. Lowercase Roman numerals represent minor chords. The diminished symbol identifies a diminished chord. In C major, the I chord is C major and the V chord is G major. The V chord commonly resolves to the I chord. 7. RHYTHM AND NOTE VALUES Whole note = four quarter-note beats. Half note = two quarter-note beats. Quarter note = one beat. Eighth note = half a beat. Sixteenth note = one-quarter of a beat. These values assume a simple meter in which the quarter note receives one beat. A dot adds half the original note value. A dotted half note equals three quarter-note beats. A rest indicates silence for a specific duration. The beat is the underlying pulse of music. Rhythm is the organization of note durations and rests. Tempo is the speed of the beat. Meter organizes beats into recurring groups. A measure is a unit of music separated by bar lines. Syncopation emphasizes unexpected beats or subdivisions. 8. TIME SIGNATURES The top number indicates how many beats or counting units are grouped in a measure. The bottom number identifies the note value used as the unit. 2/4 usually has two quarter-note beats per measure. 3/4 usually has three quarter-note beats per measure. 4/4 usually has four quarter-note beats per measure. 6/8 usually has two main beats, each divided into three eighth notes. Simple meter divides each main beat into two. Compound meter divides each main beat into three. Examples of simple meter include 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. Examples of compound meter include 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8. 9. MUSICAL TEXTURE Monophonic texture consists of one melodic line. Several people singing the same melody in unison can still be monophonic. Homophonic texture consists of a melody supported by accompaniment or harmony. Polyphonic texture consists of two or more independent melodic lines. Heterophonic texture consists of simultaneous variations of the same melody. 10. MUSICAL FORM Binary form: AB. Ternary form: ABA. Rondo form: A recurring main section alternates with contrasting sections. An example is ABACA. Theme and variations: A theme is repeated with changes. Strophic form: The same music is repeated for different verses. Through-composed form: The music continues with new material rather than repeating the same large sections. Sonata form commonly includes exposition, development, and recapitulation. 11. DYNAMICS, TEMPO, AND ARTICULATION pp = pianissimo, very soft. p = piano, soft. mp = mezzo-piano, moderately soft. mf = mezzo-forte, moderately loud. f = forte, loud. ff = fortissimo, very loud. Crescendo means gradually louder. Diminuendo means gradually softer. Allegro means fast and lively. Adagio means slow. Andante means a walking pace. Moderato means moderate speed. Presto means very fast. Staccato means short and detached. Legato means smooth and connected. Accent means a note receives emphasis. Fermata means a note or rest is prolonged as directed. SECTION 2: MUSIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE 1. MEDIEVAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 500 TO 1400 Important characteristics: Gregorian chant Monophonic sacred music Early musical notation Development of organum, which added voices to chant Important composer: Hildegard of Bingen 2. RENAISSANCE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1400 TO 1600 Important characteristics: Polyphony Imitative counterpoint Balanced vocal writing Growth of secular vocal music Important genres: Motet Madrigal Mass Important composers: Josquin des Prez Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Thomas Morley A madrigal is a secular vocal composition associated particularly with the Renaissance. 3. BAROQUE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1600 TO 1750 Important characteristics: Ornamentation Contrast Basso continuo Counterpoint Development of opera Elaborate musical expression Important genres: Fugue Suite Concerto Opera Oratorio Important composers: Johann Sebastian Bach: Known for fugues, counterpoint, and sacred music. George Frideric Handel: Known for Messiah and other oratorios. Antonio Vivaldi: Known for The Four Seasons and concertos. Claudio Monteverdi: Important in the development of early opera. 4. CLASSICAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1750 TO 1820 Important characteristics: Balance Clarity Symmetry Clear phrase structure Formal organization Important genres: Symphony Sonata String quartet Concerto Opera Important composers: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Known for operas, symphonies, and concertos. Joseph Haydn: Known for symphonies and string quartets. Ludwig van Beethoven: Bridged the Classical and Romantic periods. Sonata form commonly consists of exposition, development, and recapitulation. 5. ROMANTIC PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1820 TO 1900 Important characteristics: Emotional expression Expanded orchestras Richer harmony Nationalism Program music Virtuosic performance Important composers: Franz Schubert: Known for art songs and lieder. Frédéric Chopin: Known for piano compositions. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Known for ballets and orchestral music. Richard Wagner: Known for music dramas and operas. Hector Berlioz: Known for orchestration and programmatic music. Franz Liszt: Known for piano virtuosity and symphonic poems. 6. TWENTIETH-CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY MUSIC Impressionism: Associated with Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Emphasizes musical color, timbre, and distinctive harmonic language. Atonality: Music that does not rely on a conventional tonal center. Arnold Schoenberg is an important figure. Neoclassicism: Uses or adapts features associated with earlier musical periods. Igor Stravinsky is associated with this movement. Minimalism: Uses repetition and gradual musical change. Important composers include Philip Glass and Steve Reich. Other topics: Jazz Blues Electronic music Film music Experimental music Global musical traditions 7. IMPORTANT MUSICAL GENRES Symphony: A large-scale orchestral work, often consisting of several movements. Concerto: A work featuring a soloist or soloists in contrast with an orchestra. Sonata: An instrumental composition, often in multiple movements. Fugue: A contrapuntal composition based on a subject introduced in different voices. Opera: A dramatic work presented primarily through singing with instrumental accompaniment. Oratorio: A large vocal work, often sacred, generally performed without the staging typical of opera. Art song or Lied: A solo vocal composition, usually with piano accompaniment. Mass: A musical setting of texts from the Christian liturgy. Motet: A choral genre, often sacred, whose characteristics vary by period. Madrigal: A secular vocal genre especially associated with the Renaissance. SECTION 3: WORLD MUSIC AND CULTURAL CONTEXT West African drumming traditions: May feature layered rhythms, interlocking patterns, call and response, and community participation. Indian classical music: Raga refers to a melodic framework. Tala refers to a rhythmic cycle. Indonesian gamelan: Ensembles often include gongs, metallophones, and other instruments. Japanese shakuhachi: An end-blown bamboo flute. Blues: An African American musical tradition associated with expressive phrasing, blue notes, and characteristic harmonic patterns. Jazz: Often includes improvisation, interaction among musicians, and swing, depending on the style. Latin American music: Includes many regional traditions shaped by Indigenous, African, and European influences. Important principle: Study the sound, instruments, cultural context, and function of each musical tradition. Avoid assuming that every culture uses Western notation, harmony, or musical structures. SECTION 4: INSTRUMENT FAMILIES 1. WOODWINDS Examples: Flute Piccolo Oboe English horn Clarinet Bass clarinet Bassoon Contrabassoon Saxophone The flute produces sound when air is blown across an opening. The clarinet uses a single reed. The oboe uses a double reed. The bassoon uses a double reed. The saxophone uses a single reed, even though it is commonly made of brass. 2. BRASS Examples: Trumpet French horn Trombone Euphonium Tuba Brass instruments produce sound through the vibration of the player's lips against a mouthpiece. The trombone commonly uses a slide. The trumpet is generally the highest standard orchestral brass instrument. The tuba is generally the lowest standard orchestral brass instrument. 3. STRINGS Examples: Violin Viola Cello Double bass The violin is generally the highest standard orchestral string instrument. The viola is larger and lower in pitch than the violin. The cello is commonly played while seated. The double bass is the lowest standard orchestral string instrument. Strings can produce sound by bowing or plucking. 4. PERCUSSION Examples: Timpani Snare drum Bass drum Cymbals Triangle Tambourine Xylophone Marimba Vibraphone Definite-pitch percussion instruments include the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and timpani. Many drums and cymbals produce sounds without a single definite pitch. Percussion instruments are not all unpitched. SECTION 5: VOCAL MUSIC 1. VOICE TYPES Soprano: Highest common adult female voice category. Mezzo-soprano: Middle adult female voice category. Alto or contralto: Lower adult female voice category. Tenor: Highest common adult male voice category. Baritone: Middle adult male voice category. Bass: Lowest common adult male voice category. SATB stands for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Voice ranges can overlap. A student's comfortable singing range is more important than a single note boundary. 2. VOCAL HEALTH Encourage proper posture and relaxed breathing. Use age-appropriate warm-ups. Encourage hydration. Avoid forcing students to sing outside a comfortable range. Recognize that adolescent voices change at different rates. Adapt vocal parts to accommodate changing voices. Range refers to the pitches a singer can produce. Tessitura refers to the range in which a singer is most comfortable and can sing sustainably. SECTION 6: AURAL SKILLS AND PERFORMANCE 1. LISTENING VOCABULARY Pitch: How high or low a sound is. Timbre: The quality or color of a sound. Dynamics: The loudness and softness of music. Articulation: How notes begin, connect, and end. Intonation: The accuracy of pitch. Balance: The relative loudness of musical parts. Blend: How well sounds combine within an ensemble. Tempo: The speed of the beat. Texture: The relationship among musical lines. Form: The overall organization of a musical composition. 2. CONDUCTING Conducting patterns communicate meter and coordinate performers. Two-beat pattern: Two main beats per measure. Three-beat pattern: Three main beats per measure. Four-beat pattern: Four main beats per measure. The preparatory gesture establishes the tempo and helps cue the entrance. The ictus is the focal point of a beat gesture. A cutoff gesture indicates when performers should stop producing sound. Clear gestures, consistent tempo, and appropriate eye contact help ensembles perform together. 3. TUNING AND INTONATION Tuning establishes a reference pitch. Intonation describes the accuracy of performed pitches. A sharp pitch is too high. A flat pitch is too low. Musicians should listen to one another and adjust pitch, balance, and blend. Warm-ups prepare performers physically and musically. 4. TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS Some instruments sound at a different pitch from the written note. B-flat trumpet: Written C sounds as B-flat. B-flat clarinet: Written C sounds as B-flat. E-flat alto saxophone: Written C sounds as E-flat. F horn: Written C sounds as F. These are standard written-to-sounding relationships for the listed instruments. SECTION 7: MUSIC EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGY 1. IMPORTANT TEACHING APPROACHES Orff Schulwerk: Uses speech, movement, improvisation, and accessible percussion instruments. Kodály: Emphasizes singing, solfege, inner hearing, and sequential musicianship. Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Uses bodily movement to experience musical concepts, particularly rhythm. Suzuki: Emphasizes listening, repetition, early instrumental learning, and family involvement. Gordon Music Learning Theory: Emphasizes audiation, the ability to hear and comprehend music internally. 2. SOLFEGE Movable-do solfege connects syllables to scale degrees. Scale degree 1 = Do Scale degree 2 = Re Scale degree 3 = Mi Scale degree 4 = Fa Scale degree 5 = Sol Scale degree 6 = La Scale degree 7 = Ti Scale degree 8 = Do In movable do, Do represents the tonic of the key. In fixed do, syllables correspond to specific note names. Hearing is the physical process of perceiving sound. Audiation is the mental process of hearing and understanding music internally. 3. LESSON PLANNING A strong music lesson includes: A clear learning objective. Activities that directly support the objective. Opportunities for guided and independent practice. Assessment to determine whether students met the objective. Feedback and adjustments for future instruction. Example objective: Students will accurately clap and identify quarter notes, eighth notes, and quarter rests in a four-beat measure. An appropriate assessment would ask students to perform or identify the rhythms. 4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT Diagnostic assessment: Identifies what students know before instruction. Formative assessment: Checks learning during instruction and helps the teacher adjust instruction. Summative assessment: Evaluates learning after a unit or at the end of instruction. Performance assessment: Requires students to demonstrate a skill, such as singing a melody. Rubric: Defines assessment criteria and performance levels. Example: If students struggle with a rhythmic pattern during rehearsal, the teacher can model the rhythm, provide guided practice, and reassess their performance. 5. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND INCLUSION Give clear instructions. Model the expected behavior. Establish routines for distributing instruments and transitioning between activities. Choose age-appropriate repertoire. Use suitable vocal and instrumental ranges. Adapt instruction to accommodate different abilities and learning needs. Provide multiple ways for students to demonstrate understanding. Give specific and constructive feedback. Maintain a respectful environment where students can participate without humiliation. 6. COPYRIGHT AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Copyright generally protects original musical works and sound recordings, subject to applicable law. Purchasing sheet music does not automatically grant permission to copy or distribute it. Educational use is not automatically exempt from copyright restrictions. Fair use depends on the circumstances and relevant legal factors. Use appropriately licensed scores, recordings, and digital resources. Respect student privacy and follow school policies when recording or sharing performances. Credit sources and respect creators' rights. SECTION 8: MUSIC TECHNOLOGY AND ACOUSTICS MIDI: Represents musical performance data, including notes, timing, and velocity. MIDI is not itself a recorded audio waveform. Digital audio: Represents sound using digital samples. Microphone: Converts sound into an electrical signal. Amplification: Increases the level of an audio signal. Reverberation: The persistence of sound due to reflections in an environment. Acoustics: The study of how sound behaves in spaces and environments. Frequency: Measured in hertz and related to perceived pitch. Amplitude: Describes the magnitude of a sound wave or signal and is related to perceived loudness. Timbre: The quality that helps distinguish sounds produced by different instruments or voices. Important distinction: Frequency is not the same as loudness. Higher frequency generally corresponds to higher pitch, while greater amplitude generally corresponds to greater loudness. SECTION 9: MUSICAL NOTATION AND TERMS 1. STAFF AND CLEFS Treble clef lines, from bottom to top: E, G, B, D, F. Treble clef spaces, from bottom to top: F, A, C, E. Bass clef lines, from bottom to top: G, B, D, F, A. Bass clef spaces, from bottom to top: A, C, E, G. Ledger lines extend the staff to represent pitches above or below it. 2. ADDITIONAL TERMS Enharmonic notes: Notes that sound the same in equal temperament but have different spellings, such as C-sharp and D-flat. Anacrusis: An incomplete opening measure, also called a pickup. Ostinato: A repeated musical pattern. Rubato: Expressive flexibility in tempo. Cadenza: A soloistic passage, often virtuosic, traditionally associated with a concerto. A cappella: Singing without instrumental accompaniment. Counterpoint: The combination of independent melodic lines. Basso continuo: A Baroque accompaniment practice involving a bass line and harmonic realization.