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📚 FULL REVIEW SHEET: Ethics & Meaning of Life 🏛️ Aristotle’s Ethics (Virtue Ethics) 🔹 The Golden Mean (Virtue = Balance) Aristotle believed that moral virtue is a balance between two extremes: Excess (too much) Deficiency (too little) 👉 Examples: Courage = between cowardice (too little bravery) and recklessness (too much) Generosity = between stinginess and wastefulness ✔ Key idea: Virtue is not one-size-fits-all—it depends on the situation and requires judgment. 🔹 Habits & Character We are not born virtuous Virtue is developed through practice and repetition “We are what we repeatedly do” 👉 If you act honestly repeatedly → you become an honest person ✔ This is why habits are central to Aristotle’s ethics 🔹 Instrumental vs Intrinsic Goods Instrumental goods = useful for achieving something else (ex: money, tools, education) Intrinsic goods = valuable in themselves (ex: happiness) 🔹 Happiness (Eudaimonia) Aristotle’s ultimate goal: eudaimonia (flourishing) Not just pleasure → a life of reason and virtue ✔ Happiness = Living morally Using reason well Achieving your full potential ⚖️ Kant’s Ethics (Deontology) 🔹 Core Idea: Duty Over Consequences Immanuel Kant believed: Morality is about doing your duty NOT about outcomes or happiness 🔹 Maxims A maxim = your personal rule for acting 👉 Example: “It’s okay to lie when it helps me” 🔹 Categorical Imperative The most important rule: 👉 Only act on maxims you would want to become universal laws Ask yourself: “What if everyone did this?” ✔ If it creates a contradiction → it’s immoral 🔹 Treat People as Ends Another version: Never treat people as means only Always treat them as ends (valuable individuals) 🔗 Free Will & Determinism 🔹 Determinism All events are caused by previous events Your actions are the result of: Biology Environment Past experiences 🔹 Hard Determinism No free will exists Everything is predetermined 🔹 Soft Determinism (Compatibilism) Free will can exist with determinism You are free if you act without coercion 🔹 Libertarianism (Free Will Theory) Humans have true freedom We are not fully determined 🔹 Beliefs, Desires & Freedom Actions come from: What you believe What you want 👉 Debate: If these are determined → are we really free? 🔹 Coercion When someone is forced by external pressure 👉 Examples: Threats (gunpoint) Blackmail ✔ Coerced actions = not fully free 🔹 Free Will & Moral Responsibility We can only be held responsible if: We had control We acted freely 🧠 Existentialism & Meaning 🔹 Jean-Paul Sartre Key Idea: 👉 “Existence precedes essence” You are NOT born with a purpose You create yourself through choices 🔹 Human Nature No fixed human nature Humans are radically free 🔹 Anguish Deep anxiety from: Total freedom Total responsibility 👉 You are responsible for everything you choose 🔹 Meaning of Life No built-in meaning You must create meaning yourself 🪨 Sisyphus 🔹 Sisyphus Punished by rolling a rock uphill forever The rock always rolls back down 👉 Represents: Meaningless or repetitive life Human struggle ✔ Often used in existentialism: Even in absurdity → we can create meaning ✝️ Arguments for the Existence of God 🔹 Ontological Argument (A Priori) Anselm of Canterbury Based on logic alone God = “greatest possible being” If God exists in the mind → must exist in reality ✔ No observation needed 🔹 Design Argument (Teleological) William Paley World is complex and ordered Like a watch → implies a watchmaker 👉 Therefore → God exists 🔹 The Problem of Evil If God is: All-powerful All-good 👉 Why does evil exist? ✔ Challenges belief in God 🔬 Scientism & Naturalism 🔹 Scientism Only science gives true knowledge 🔹 Naturalism Everything is explained by natural causes No supernatural explanations 🔹 Impact on Free Will If everything is scientific → maybe free will is an illusion 😊 John Stuart Mill & Utilitarianism 🔹 John Stuart Mill Focus: maximize happiness 🔹 Higher vs Lower Pleasures Higher Pleasures: Intellectual (reading, thinking, learning) Lower Pleasures: Physical (eating, comfort) ✔ Key idea: 👉 “Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”

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D - Origins of the ontological argument - Anselm

Anselm's Ontological Argument

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Understanding Anselm's Argument for the Existence of God

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Anselm: Ontological Argument for the Existence of God

jhjh (ง’̀-‘́)ง (≖_≖ ) o_O (▀̿Ĺ̯▀̿ ̿) Post Aristotelian Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy, and Modern Philosophy Plotinus, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Kant Descartes, John Locke The two topical sections - Logic and Possible worlds History Section (~75% of the Test) Matching - Associate the Person with the appropriate Topic, Theory, or Proposition He gives the categories/words and we find who it goes with Categorical imperative - Immanuel Kant Epistemic doubt - Rene Descartes Epistemic Certainty - Rene Descartes Father of Empiricism - Francis Bacon Numeral vs Phenomenal - Immanuel Kant Quinque Viae (The Five ways) - Aquinas Ways of negation vs reality - Baruch Spinoza We use three types of language to describe God, allegorical, equivocal, and univocal - Thomas Aquinas The theory of divine illumination - Augustine Theory of Emanation - Plotinus Wager for God’s existence - Pascal Originator of Ideal Forms - Plato Originator of the Theory of Abstraction - Aristotle Matching - Match the author to the book City of God - Augustine Prosolgian - Anselm of Canterbury Leviathan - Thomas Hobbs Pensées- Pascal The Aeneans - Plotinus Critique of Pure Reason - Kant True False Questions (around 20) Plotinus believed in the eternality of the world, but not the necessity of the world. - False Plotinus’ philosophy was explicitly religious. - True Although not a Christian Plotinus was sympathetic toward Christianity. - False Scholars hold that Thomas Aquinas denied the existence of innate knowledge and even affirmed belief in tabula rasa - True Concerning modern philosophy, empiricism describes the English posture, whereas rationalism describes the continental posture - True The Medieval Period was truly a period of dark ages - False John Locke closely followed the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes. - False Whereas we usually associate induction with empiricism, we usually associate deduction with rationalism - True Multiple Choice Questions (Around 15) Which figure articulated man’s inability or ability to commit sins with the phrases posse peccare et posse non peccare, non posse non peccare, and non posse peccare? - Augustine Who ridiculed Anselm's argument for God's existence by saying he conceived the greatest possible Island? - Gaunilo Which figure followed the religion of Manichaeism for a time? - Augustine Albetro Magnus said we call him the dumb ox, but the bellows of that ox will resound throughout the whole world. Of who was he speaking? - Aquinas Which figure boiled anthropology down to emotion? - Hume That than which nothing or none greater can be thought. Is that cosmological, teleological, ontological, anthropological or moral argument? - Ontological Be able to rank Plotinus’ levels of the world The One (or The Good) The Mind The Soul The Body/the Physical Fill in the blank questions What phrase did Augustine use to describe Plato’s ideal forms? They are “divine ideas”? The four cardinal virtues and the three theological virtues - 3 theological virtues: faith, hope, and love 4 cardinal virtues: courage, justice, temperance, prudence Have a good working knowledge of the double theory of truth and whether it's a good or bad thing. This is a Bad thing Averröes proposed that the truth relating to philosophy can be different than in religion. For example, much of Aristotelian philosophy contradicts Muslim/Christian theocracy. Averröes proposes that this doesn’t matter. Short Answer (Four of Six Questions) The respective relationships of faith and reason and how they engage those between Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Augustine - I believe in order to understand (credo ut intelligam) Basically, faith has priority over reason. We only learn because God reveals it to us through Divine Illumination Faith is the foundation; reason is its servant and helper. Aquinas - Natural truths - known by reason Revealed truths - known only by faith Preliminary truths - reason can demonstrate them, but revelation also teaches them. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas and Abraham Piper believed certain things regarding the church state relationship. Augustine: Two cities; separate but related. Restrain sin, maintain order. Aquinas: Distinct but complementary; harmony. Promote common good, natural law. The state should be subject to moral law and that the Church should be free from political interference. Piper: Rejection of religious influence in politics. Secular, non-religious governance. The question about the City of God and The City of Man City of God: is formed by the love of God even to the contempt of self. Spiritual and eternal. The people in this city love God, and put him over every aspect of their life Seeks humility and obedience to God City of Man: Is formed by the love of self even to the contempt of God. They love themselves more than anything else, including God Defined by selfish and worldly desires. Temporary and fleshly They will be united in the judgment Where does evil come from? Why does it exist? Augstine says evil is just a lesser good. For example, choosing something that does less harm is less evil than choosing something worse. Likewise, Aquinas offers his view saying that evil is the perversion of good. Both say it’s the privation of good. Logic and Possible Worlds (~25%) True False Questions (around 10) All descriptions of God are essential properties. - False (He might reword this question) The laws of Logic, which are laws of truth, are a reflection of the Character of the being that is God - True A proposition may be false - True Know the three Laws of Logic Law of Identity - Each thing is identical with itself Law of noncontradictions - The same attribute cannot at the same time and in the same respect belong and not belong to the same subject. A cannot be both A and not-A at the same time Law of the excluded middle - For any proposition P, either P is true or not-P is true. Multiple Choice Questions Who defines Philosophy as thinking really hard about something? - Alvin Plantinga Four Questions: Identify whether it's formally valid or not formally valid according to Sentential logic? Note that an argument may follow the rules of sentential logic but fail as a good deductive argument. Or it may make a true statement that fails to follow the rules of sentential logic. Ex 1. Premise 1: All people like to read and run Premise 2: You are a person Conclusion: You like to read and run. Ex 2 (This is an example he gave of something that doesn’t follow logic). Premise 1: If you listen to the soundtrack of The Fellowship of the Ring, the first film of The Lord of the Rings series, then you are listening to Howard Shore. Premise 2: You listen to the soundtrack of The Return of the King, the third film of The Lord of the Rings series. Conclusion: You are listening to Howard Shore Sometimes a thing can be true but not follow sentential logic. Post Aristotelian Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy, and Modern Philosophy Plotinus, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Kant Descartes, John Locke The two topical sections - Logic and Possible worlds History Section (~75% of the Test) Matching - Associate the Person with the appropriate Topic, Theory, or Proposition He gives the categories/words and we find who it goes with Categorical imperative - Immanuel Kant Epistemic doubt - Rene Descartes Epistemic Certainty - Rene Descartes Father of Empiricism - Francis Bacon Numeral vs Phenomenal - Immanuel Kant Quinque Viae (The Five ways) - Aquinas Ways of negation vs reality - Baruch Spinoza We use three types of language to describe God, allegorical, equivocal, and univocal - Thomas Aquinas The theory of divine illumination - Augustine Theory of Emanation - Plotinus Wager for God’s existence - Pascal Originator of Ideal Forms - Plato Originator of the Theory of Abstraction - Aristotle Matching - Match the author to the book City of God - Augustine Prosolgian - Anselm of Canterbury Leviathan - Thomas Hobbs Pensées- Pascal The Aeneans - Plotinus Critique of Pure Reason - Kant True False Questions (around 20) Plotinus believed in the eternality of the world, but not the necessity of the world. - False Plotinus’ philosophy was explicitly religious. - True Although not a Christian Plotinus was sympathetic toward Christianity. - False Scholars hold that Thomas Aquinas denied the existence of innate knowledge and even affirmed belief in tabula rasa - True Concerning modern philosophy, empiricism describes the English posture, whereas rationalism describes the continental posture - True The Medieval Period was truly a period of dark ages - False John Locke closely followed the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes. - False Whereas we usually associate induction with empiricism, we usually associate deduction with rationalism - True Multiple Choice Questions (Around 15) Which figure articulated man’s inability or ability to commit sins with the phrases posse peccare et posse non peccare, non posse non peccare, and non posse peccare? - Augustine Who ridiculed Anselm's argument for God's existence by saying he conceived the greatest possible Island? - Gaunilo Which figure followed the religion of Manichaeism for a time? - Augustine Albetro Magnus said we call him the dumb ox, but the bellows of that ox will resound throughout the whole world. Of who was he speaking? - Aquinas Which figure boiled anthropology down to emotion? - Hume That than which nothing or none greater can be thought. Is that cosmological, teleological, ontological, anthropological or moral argument? - Ontological Be able to rank Plotinus’ levels of the world The One (or The Good) The Mind The Soul The Body/the Physical Fill in the blank questions What phrase did Augustine use to describe Plato’s ideal forms? They are “divine ideas”? The four cardinal virtues and the three theological virtues - 3 theological virtues: faith, hope, and love 4 cardinal virtues: courage, justice, temperance, prudence Have a good working knowledge of the double theory of truth and whether it's a good or bad thing. This is a Bad thing Averröes proposed that the truth relating to philosophy can be different than in religion. For example, much of Aristotelian philosophy contradicts Muslim/Christian theocracy. Averröes proposes that this doesn’t matter. Short Answer (Four of Six Questions) The respective relationships of faith and reason and how they engage those between Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. Augustine - I believe in order to understand (credo ut intelligam) Basically, faith has priority over reason. We only learn because God reveals it to us through Divine Illumination Faith is the foundation; reason is its servant and helper. Aquinas - Natural truths - known by reason Revealed truths - known only by faith Preliminary truths - reason can demonstrate them, but revelation also teaches them. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas and Abraham Piper believed certain things regarding the church state relationship. Augustine: Two cities; separate but related. Restrain sin, maintain order. Aquinas: Distinct but complementary; harmony. Promote common good, natural law. The state should be subject to moral law and that the Church should be free from political interference. Piper: Rejection of religious influence in politics. Secular, non-religious governance. The question about the City of God and The City of Man City of God: is formed by the love of God even to the contempt of self. Spiritual and eternal. The people in this city love God, and put him over every aspect of their life Seeks humility and obedience to God City of Man: Is formed by the love of self even to the contempt of God. They love themselves more than anything else, including God Defined by selfish and worldly desires. Temporary and fleshly They will be united in the judgment Where does evil come from? Why does it exist? Augstine says evil is just a lesser good. For example, choosing something that does less harm is less evil than choosing something worse. Likewise, Aquinas offers his view saying that evil is the perversion of good. Both say it’s the privation of good. Logic and Possible Worlds (~25%) True False Questions (around 10) All descriptions of God are essential properties. - False (He might reword this question) The laws of Logic, which are laws of truth, are a reflection of the Character of the being that is God - True A proposition may be false - True Know the three Laws of Logic Law of Identity - Each thing is identical with itself Law of noncontradictions - The same attribute cannot at the same time and in the same respect belong and not belong to the same subject. A cannot be both A and not-A at the same time Law of the excluded middle - For any proposition P, either P is true or not-P is true. Multiple Choice Questions Who defines Philosophy as thinking really hard about something? - Alvin Plantinga Four Questions: Identify whether it's formally valid or not formally valid according to Sentential logic? Note that an argument may follow the rules of sentential logic but fail as a good deductive argument. Or it may make a true statement that fails to follow the rules of sentential logic. Ex 1. Premise 1: All people like to read and run Premise 2: You are a person Conclusion: You like to read and run. Ex 2 (This is an example he gave of something that doesn’t follow logic). Premise 1: If you listen to the soundtrack of The Fellowship of the Ring, the first film of The Lord of the Rings series, then you are listening to Howard Shore. Premise 2: You listen to the soundtrack of The Return of the King, the third film of The Lord of the Rings series. Conclusion: You are listening to Howard Shore Sometimes a thing can be true but not follow sentential logic

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