Results for "Shaping"

Shaping Evol. History Main Lecture

8.6.6 - Traffic Shaping

GOV-Shaping Judiciary Power (NB15)

Loie Fuller: The Art of Illusion * Known for her innovative use of fabric, light, and color to create captivating visual illusions in performance. * Her work emphasized the image created rather than the physicality of the dancer's body, marking a shift in performance art. * Patented several costume and set designs, including the iconic Serpentine dress and the glass floor for Fire Dance, showcasing her ingenuity. * Premiered notable works such as The Serpentine (1889) and Fire Dance (1895), which were pivotal in her career. * Succeeded in creating an aesthetic transformation, emphasizing individual interpretation of visual experiences. Isadora Duncan: The Mother of Modern Dance * An eccentric figure who rejected traditional ballet, favoring movement inspired by emotion and nature's rhythms. * While she did not create a new dance technique, she introduced a new motivation for movement, rooted in nostalgia for Ancient Greece. * Her philosophy emphasized that motion should be driven by emotion and expressed through the entire body, leading to a more natural form of dance. * Duncan's choreography was improvisational, focusing on feeling over form, and drew inspiration from her childhood innocence. * Her performances in St. Petersburg (beginning in 1904) inspired contemporaries like Fokine and Nijinsky, influencing the broader dance community. * Left a legacy of natural, emotional dancing, characterized by bare feet and flowing costumes, as seen in works like Ballspiel (1906) and Five Brahms Waltzes. The Denishawn School and Its Legacy Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn: Pioneers of Dance * Ruth St. Denis was captivated by exotic and oriental themes, famously inspired by an Egyptian cigarette poster featuring the goddess Isis. * Her dance Radha was a significant work that launched her career, showcasing her understanding of spectacle and audience engagement. * Ted Shawn played a crucial role in introducing men to professional dance, emphasizing powerful and athletic movement. * He founded an all-male dance company, Ted Shawn and His Male Dancers, and was a driving force behind the Denishawn School. * Shawn established Jacob’s Pillow, a significant dance venue in Massachusetts, which remains influential today. * Their collaboration and individual contributions helped shape the landscape of American dance. The Denishawn School: A Foundation for Modern Dance * Established in Los Angeles in 1915, Denishawn was the first dance school in the U.S. to produce a professional company. * The curriculum included a variety of styles, with a typical day comprising stretching, ballet, Oriental dance, and yoga meditation. * The school closed in 1919, but the Denishawn Company continued to tour, becoming the first U.S. company to perform in the Orient in 1925. * The school created a lineage of dancers, including Martha Graham and Doris Humphrey, who would further develop modern dance. * Denishawn's approach combined various techniques, allowing for a diverse exploration of movement and expression. * The legacy of Denishawn is evident in the evolution of modern dance and its emphasis on personal expression. The Big Four: Shaping Modern Dance Doris Humphrey: The Architect of Dance * Studied at Denishawn from 1917 to 1928, where she formed a creative partnership with Charles Weidman. * Known for her movement theory of 'fall and recovery,' which emphasizes the dynamics of balance and gravity in dance. * Established the Humphrey-Weidman Company in 1928, focusing on structure and technique in choreography. * Authored The Art of Making Dances, which codified choreographic design and emphasized ensemble work over solo performance. * Her choreography often explored themes of human experience and emotion, as seen in works like Water Study (1928). * Left a significant impact on modern dance through her innovative techniques and teachings. Martha Graham: The Psychological Pioneer * Studied at Denishawn from 1916 to 1923, where she developed her unique style of modern dance. * Her first concert as an independent artist in 1926 marked the beginning of the 'Heroic Age' of modern dance. * Graham's choreography often drew from psychoanalysis, focusing on the inner emotional landscape and reinterpreting patriarchal narratives. * Developed the Graham Technique, centered on contraction and release, which became the first codified modern dance technique. * Her company is recognized as the first truly modern dance company, celebrating its centennial milestone. * Graham's legacy includes a profound influence on the perception of dance as a serious art form. Ausdruckstanz and Its Influencers Rudolf Laban and Mary Wigman: Movement Innovators * Ausdruckstanz, or 'expressive dance,' emerged as a response to the cultural movements of the early 20th century, paralleling American modern dance. * Rudolf Laban, a movement scientist, developed a system of movement training and Labanotation for dance notation. * Laban's Movement Choirs allowed for structured improvisation, making dance accessible to all, regardless of training. * Mary Wigman, Laban's student, became a leading figure in German dance, known for her harsh and grotesque style. * Wigman's work often explored apocalyptic themes and the validity of all movement, including the ugly. * The rise of Nazism interrupted the development of Ausdruckstanz, impacting both Laban and Wigman's careers. Hanya Holm: Bridging Cultures in Dance * A student of Mary Wigman, Holm opened the Wigman School in NYC, later renamed the Hanya Holm School of Dance. * Known for her teaching talent, she blended American objectivity with German subjectivity in her methods. * Holm's approach produced highly skilled dancers, emphasizing detailed movement and expression. * Her influence extended through her students and the techniques she developed, contributing to the evolution of modern dance. * Holm's legacy is marked by her ability to adapt and innovate within the dance community. Key Influential Choreographers José Limón * Notable works include The Moor’s Pavane (1949), There is a Time (1956), and Missa Brevis (1958). * Developed the Limón Technique, which emphasizes movement through positions rather than the positions themselves. * Integrates breath (inspired by Doris Humphrey) and gesture (inspired by Charles Weidman) into dance. * Core principles include breath, fall and recovery, succession, and opposition, promoting a holistic approach to movement. * Describes the body as an orchestra, highlighting the importance of coordination and expression in dance. Lester Horton * Born in Indianapolis and moved to Los Angeles in 1928, where he became influenced by Native American cultures. * Inspired to pursue dance after witnessing a Denishawn performance, leading to the creation of the Horton Technique. * Established the first interracial dance company and the Lester Horton Dance Theater, which was the first venue dedicated to modern dance. * Horton Technique focuses on body actions viewed artistically, emphasizing anatomy and conditioning in exercises. * Known for the 17 Fortifications, which include movements like flat backs and lunges, producing versatile and articulate dancers. Katherine Dunham * A pioneer in integrating Black dance traditions into modern dance, she is recognized as the first dance anthropologist. * Conducted research in the West Indies, studying dance as a cultural expression, supported by fellowships from the University of Chicago. * Founded the Katherine Dunham Dance Company and the Dunham School for Arts and Research in 1945. * Major contributions include paving the way for Black dancers and establishing dance anthropology as a field of study. * Developed the Dunham Technique, which combines ballet and modern dance with Afro-Caribbean movements, often accompanied by jazz or polyrhythmic percussion. Modern Dance Techniques Horton Technique * Focuses on the body and its basic actions, viewed through an artistic lens, with a strong emphasis on anatomy and conditioning. * Inspired by 'primitive' cultures, it incorporates movements that reflect these influences. * Training includes foundational movements such as flat backs, lateral T, and lunges, aimed at creating dancers who are 'long and strong'. * The technique promotes versatility and fluidity in movement, allowing for detailed expression. * The Horton class at Butler University exemplifies the application of this technique in a structured learning environment. Limón Technique * Emphasizes movement through positions rather than static positions, focusing on the flow of movement. * Integrates breath and gesture, creating a dynamic interplay between the two. * Built on principles of fall and recovery, succession, and opposition, which are essential for expressive movement. * The concept of the 'body as an orchestra' highlights the importance of coordination and musicality in dance. * Instruction in this technique encourages dancers to explore their physicality and expressiveness. Dunham Technique * Combines principles of ballet and modern dance with a focus on torso isolations and Afro-Caribbean movements. * Musical accompaniment typically features jazz or polyrhythmic percussion, enhancing the cultural fusion in the dance. * The technique showcases a blend of American dance and Black dance heritage, enriching the modern dance landscape. * Dunham's work emphasizes the importance of cultural context in dance, reflecting her anthropological background. * The technique has influenced many dancers and choreographers, expanding the scope of modern dance. Postmodern Dance Movement A Postmodern America * Emerged in 1945, following WWII, characterized by skepticism and socio-political unrest. * Youth culture began to rebel against the traditional values of their parents, leading to significant cultural shifts. * Key events of the 1960s, such as the Women's and Civil Rights Movements, shaped the artistic landscape. * The assassinations of prominent figures like JFK, MLK, and Malcolm X, along with the Vietnam War and Cuban Missile Crisis, influenced the themes in postmodern art. * This period marked a departure from traditional narratives in dance, paving the way for new forms of expression. Merce Cunningham * Regarded as a revolutionary figure in the arts, comparable to Picasso and Stravinsky, he danced with Martha Graham from 1939 to 1945. * Challenged the necessity of meaning in dance, often at odds with the groundedness of Graham's technique. * Founded the Merce Cunningham Dance Company in 1953, which continued until 2011, following his wishes for a legacy tour. * His technique blends ballet and modern styles, emphasizing verticality and clarity of form. * Cunningham's choreography often utilized chance methods, allowing for equality among movements and ideas. Paul Taylor * Danced with Graham, Cunningham, and Balanchine, becoming a significant figure in modern dance. * His choreography reflects a unique blend of influences, resulting in a distinctive style that remains relevant today. * Taylor's work is characterized by openness to movement possibilities, creating a varied body of work. * While he did not codify a specific technique, his signature style incorporates balletic ideas with a more connected performance feel. * His choreography often features a two-dimensional aesthetic and specific movement shapes, such as the Taylor V. The Judson Dance Theater and Grand Union Characteristics of Postmodern Dance * Rejects the boundaries between high and low art, promoting a more inclusive artistic dialogue. * Emphasizes process over product, focusing on the exploration of ideas rather than traditional narratives. * Disregards the boundaries between different art mediums, allowing for a fusion of styles and expressions. * The Judson Dance Theater served as a public performance space for experimental movement artists, fostering innovation in dance. * Grand Union furthered these ideals, creating a collaborative environment for diverse artistic expressions. Overview of Postmodern Dance Key Characteristics of Postmodern Dance * Emphasizes process over product, valuing the journey of creation rather than the final performance. * Rejects formalism and traditional labels, allowing for a broader interpretation of what dance can be. * Embraces the ephemeral nature of dance, recognizing that each performance is unique and transient. Historical Context and Key Figures * The dominant period of postmodern dance was from 1962 to 1964, with significant performances starting on July 6, 1962. * Key artists include Yvonne Rainer, Steve Paxton, and Trisha Brown, who were instrumental in shaping the movement. The Grand Union Collective * Formed from a project initiated by Yvonne Rainer, emphasizing collaboration and close working relationships among members. * Operated from 1970 to 1976, with performances that were entirely improvised, showcasing the spontaneity of the art form. * Members included prominent figures like Rainer, Paxton, and Brown, who contributed to the collective's innovative approach. Influential Artists and Their Contributions Yvonne Rainer * Rainer is considered the most significant figure of the Judson Dance Theater era, known for her shift from traditional techniques to more accessible forms of dance. * Her 'No Manifesto' articulated the principles of postmodern dance, advocating for a rejection of conventional aesthetics. * 'Trio A' (1966) is her most famous work, characterized by its minimalist approach and focus on movement rather than narrative. Steve Paxton and Contact Improvisation * Paxton founded Contact Improvisation (CI) in 1972, which emphasizes a shared experience between dancers, alternating roles of giving and receiving weight. * CI encourages uninhibited movement and connection, allowing for personal expression and exploration. * The lack of codification in CI promotes diverse teaching methodologies, making it adaptable to various styles. Trisha Brown * Brown is a leading figure in postmodern dance, known for her innovative use of improvisation as a choreographic tool. * Her technique focuses on gravity, exploring how to release into it and its effects on the body. * 'Set and Reset' (1983) is a hallmark of her work, showcasing collaboration with artists like Robert Rauschenberg and Laurie Anderson. The Evolution of Dance Styles The Balanchine Legacy * George Balanchine's neoclassicism transformed ballet, making it more athletic and less courtly, influenced by modern and jazz dance. * His work laid the foundation for the New York City Ballet (NYCB) and inspired emerging choreographers like William Forsythe. * Arthur Mitchell, the first African American ballet star at NYCB, founded the Dance Theatre of Harlem, integrating African American traditions into ballet. Twyla Tharp's Innovations * Tharp emerged from the postmodern movement, merging its ideas with ballet to expand the boundaries of both forms. * Founded Twyla Tharp Dance in 1965, focusing on space, time, and pedestrian movement. * Her work emphasizes creativity and improvisation, showcasing a blend of various dance styles. Contemporary Dance Practices Contemporary Training Techniques Technique Name Description Countertechnique Investigates principles of dynamic balance. Gaga Improvisational, rooted in descriptive imagery. Flying Low Focuses on using the body’s natural spiralic energy. Release Technique Centers on breath and fluidity through the joints. FoCo Technique Merges concepts from Chinese classical and modern. Somatic Practices Prioritizes feeling and sensing over visual cues. Commentary Through Choreography * Dance serves as a vessel for social commentary, addressing various social, political, and global issues. * The universal language of the body allows for a performance platform that transcends cultural barriers. * Choreographers often engage in deep research to elevate their work beyond mere entertainment, creating pieces that are literal, abstract, or metaphorical. Social Justice in Dance Bill T. Jones and His Impact * Bill T. Jones is a prominent choreographer known for using dance as a vehicle for social change, particularly during the AIDS epidemic. * His work often incorporates elements of performance art, including spoken word and multimedia. * Founded the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company in 1982, which continues to thrive today. Notable Works by Bill T. Jones * 'D-Man in the Waters' (1989) addresses the aftermath of personal loss and the AIDS crisis. * 'Last Supper at Uncle Tom’s Cabin/The Promised Land' (1990) explores themes of suffering and faith. * 'Still/Here' (1994) emerged from workshops with terminally ill individuals, gaining notoriety for its poignant exploration of mortality. * His recent work, 'Deep Blue Sea' (2021), reflects on social justice issues during the COVID-19 pandemic and the Black Lives Matter movement. Undergraduate Study in Dance Degree Types and Focus Areas * Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA): Emphasizes performance and choreography, preparing students for careers in dance performance and creative roles. * Bachelor of Arts (BA): Balances performance with a broader liberal arts education, allowing for a more diverse academic experience. * Bachelor of Science (BS): Focuses on scientific and quantitative studies, often including courses in dance sciences like kinesiology and movement therapies. Core Coursework in BFA Programs * Dance Technique: Varies by program, covering various styles and foundational skills. * Choreography: Includes practical experience in creating dance pieces, often with a focus on Dance for Camera. * Dance Pedagogy: Prepares students for teaching dance, covering methods and educational theories. * Anatomy and Kinesiology: Essential for understanding the physical body in relation to dance, enhancing performance and injury prevention. Additional Opportunities in Undergraduate Programs * Performance Opportunities: Students can perform in works by faculty, guest artists, and peers, gaining practical experience. * Masterclasses and Guest Lectures: Exposure to industry professionals enhances learning and networking. * Internships: Provide real-world experience and professional connections in the dance field. Graduate and Doctoral Study in Dance Types of Graduate Degrees * Master of Fine Arts (MFA): A terminal degree focusing on performance and creative research, essential for advanced artistic careers. * Master of Arts (MA): Often a stepping stone to Ph.D. work, focusing on liberal arts research or non-performance areas like Movement Therapy. * Ph.D. in Dance: Terminal degree for those pursuing research in educational, historical, or anthropological aspects of dance. Importance of Terminal Degrees * Terminal degrees are crucial for teaching positions in higher education, ensuring educators have advanced knowledge and skills. * They provide a pathway for specialized research, contributing to the academic field of dance. Transferable Skills from Dance Training Key Skills Developed * Time Management: Balancing rigorous training schedules with academic responsibilities. * Teamwork and Collaboration: Essential for group performances and choreographic projects. * Creative Thinking: Developing innovative solutions in choreography and performance. * Leadership: Opportunities to lead projects or direct performances enhance leadership skills. Career Opportunities in Dance Diverse Career Paths * Performance: Opportunities as company dancers or freelance artists in concert and commercial settings. * Choreography: Roles as resident choreographers or freelance artists, including dance filmmaking. * Teaching: Positions in private studios, public schools, and higher education, including curriculum development. Complementary Fields * Physical Therapy and Exercise Science: Important for injury prevention and rehabilitation for dancers. * Technical Theater: Involves stage management, costume design, and lighting design, supporting dance productions. * Nutrition and Dietetics: Essential for maintaining health and performance levels in dancers. Challenges in the Dance Industry Key Challenges Faced * Funding: Securing financial support for training and performances remains a significant hurdle. * Societal Perception: The relevance of artists is often questioned, impacting funding and support. * Job Stability: Economic factors and the nature of the industry can lead to instability in careers. The Evolution of Dance Categories Traditional Definitions * Concert Dance: Focuses on artistic expression in formal settings, traditionally dominated by ballet and modern styles. * Commercial Dance: Aimed at mainstream audiences, includes hip hop, street dance, and Broadway, requiring different training focuses. Blurring the Lines Between Categories * The rise of versatile training in the 1980s and 1990s has led to a blending of concert and commercial styles. * Shows like So You Think You Can Dance have increased exposure for dancers, allowing them to cross between genres. Dance as Sport Athleticism in Dance * Professional dance requires physical attributes similar to those in traditional sports, including strength, endurance, and flexibility. * Cross-training is essential for dancers to enhance their physical skills and performance capabilities. Dance Competitions * Competitions are organized regionally and nationally, with categories based on age, level, and genre. * Scoring systems evaluate technique, performance, and choreography, with awards given for various achievements. Pros and Cons of Dance Competitions Advantages of Dance Competitions * Dance competitions elevate the visibility of dance as a sport, engaging both dancers and audiences in a competitive atmosphere. * They provide young dancers with valuable experiences in handling rejection and understanding the subjective nature of performance evaluation. * Competitions encourage versatile training, which can serve as a launchpad for professional careers, emphasizing the importance of time management, personal responsibility, and teamwork. * Many competitions offer scholarship opportunities and conventions, enhancing training, networking, and exposure for participants. Challenges and Criticisms of Dance Competitions * Technical training may be compromised in competitive studios, focusing more on choreography and tricks rather than foundational skills. * The emphasis on sports elements can overshadow the artistic aspects of dance, influencing teaching practices in studios. * Choreography may lack individuality as dancers often follow trends that are more likely to win competitions. * Issues of hypersexuality in young dancers and the appropriateness of choreography/music are prevalent during competition seasons

Shaping Behaviour and Behaviour Chains

Geography-shaping places

VSEPR structures, angles, polarity shaping, and intermolecular forces

VSEPR structures, angles, polarity shaping, and intermolecular forces

Shaping the Constitution and Court Cases-American Government 2025

Structures and Functions of the US Government, Shaping the Constitution, Checks and Balances

pathogens shaping history

Geography Test: Shaping The Earth

Shaping Life History

Spanish - Ordinal Numbers

L20: pathogens shaping history

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Chapters 9, 10, and 11 (shaping, prompting, and chaining)

Pathogens shaping history

Chapter 18: Shaping