Results for "Secular"

Buddhism-Secularisation

2. The challenge of secularisation

Secularisation

3D - Challenges from Secularisation

Secularisation in Britain

Denominational switching:  People who move from one sect of Christianity to another  “spiritual supermarket syndrome” “pew hoppers” or “switchers” -> name calling - Growing trend in western world towards denominational switching - People no longer making lifelong commitments to one church but more likely to swap based on where they feel comfortable and are catered for o Contrast to historic patterns where individuals and families traditionally remained affiliated with one denomination for generations - Reflection of modern consumer society - Reason for increase: mobility o Growth in car ownership since 1945 makes it easier to travel to favoured church rather than local parish church - Main losers of switching are older, mainstream, traditional denominations o Lutherans, uniting church, presbyterian, Anglicans NOTE: number of Catholics switching is very low - Pentecostal churches -> reason for switch is charismatic leaders in Pentecostal churches preach with great authority and services include rock bands Interdenominational switching: - Pentecostal churches have been greatest beneficiaries of “switchers” due to: o Aggressive evgelization o Focus on personal salvation o “up-tempo” gospel services o Attractive services to under 40’s in particular o Less focus on social, ethical or moral issues o Personal following of preachers - Revolving door syndrome -> Pentecostal churches loose membership as fast as they are gained Who switches and why? - Under 40s less likely to view lifetime loyalty to particular type of church as important (15%), compared to 60+ (38%) - People with active Christian faiths more likely to switch to seek stronger Christian community and exclusively provided - Family breakdown was another factor -> children of divorce 64% more likely to cease identifying with family faith than those of non-divorced parents o Catholics 1.7x more likely to switch to a moderate protestant (methodist) denomination and 2.6x more likely to switch to conservative protestant (Baptist, evangelical) denomination Denominational dissatisfaction: - Most people who stop attending church regularly don’t stop attending completely -> they continue to be searchers - Found services to be boring - Looking for openness to different views of religious matters and broad approach to worship catering for different spiritualities - Former adherents baulk at ‘hard-line’ moral and ethical stances on contentious issues e.g. abortion Rise of new age religions:  Extremely diverse in nature with focus on fostering individual fulfillment in regard to happiness, health and meaning in life (individualism)  New age religions can be followed instead of traditional religious practices or can be practised alongside traditional religions - Popular bc traditional religions fail to resonate with modern people - New age religions have been growing since 1970s and now include: o Feng shui o Tarot cards o Astrology o Meditation o Scientology o Spiritualism o Philosophy - New age religions tend to reject monotheism, but may except polytheism, worship of nature (pantheism), goddesses, or monism (belief that everything is one) - New age religions often adopt elements of eastern religions, and may incorporate elements of numerology, astrology, yoga, tai chi, paganism and feng shui - Part of appeal is they provide freedom for adherents to pick and choose what they believe fulfills them in spiritual manner - From 1996-2001 140% growth in new age religions in census Reasons for growth include: - Disillusionment with traditional religion and traditional worship - Frustration with slowness of change - Desire for personal fulfillment - Desire to find new ways of seeking inner peace and health - Response to globalisation and de-centring of western ‘truths’ - Ease of travel - Lessening of commitment to traditional structures such as churches Links to religious traditions: - Trend towards new age religions introduced number of Hindu concepts into language and practice of many people who may not necessarily consider themselves religious - Practices include meditation, yoga and concepts such as reincarnation and karma Secularism:  Movement/concept which rejects religious belief or adherence  Belief that religion should not interfere with or be integrated into the public affairs of a society - Significant number of Australians are not religious, and number is still growing - Trend could be result of greater levels of technological and scientific knowledge + perseverance of many religions in antiquated and conservative attitudes - Some perceive to be hypocrisy that religions still try hold themselves to be moral authorities Promotes idea that society would be better off by not being controlled by religion for reasons including: - Pluralism: diversity of beliefs and cultures - Individualism, materialism and scepticism towards supernatural as result of scientific progress - Disillusionment with traditional religions Reasons for reduced membership of religious or attendance at church are varied but include: - Church practices that are boring or unfulfilling - Disagreement with church theology or stance on moral and social issues - Alternative practices that meet same needs as church e.g. social groups - No time for church - Personal dislike of religion - Technology and scientific advances that conflict with church Effects of secularism: - Loss of religious value - Lack of religious church practice e.g. civil marriages, non-religious funerals - Seeking alternative “religions” or “forms of spirituality” - Greater trust in science and belief in supernatural is contradictory to what many believe to be empirically true - Rise of new age religions which focus on personal satisfaction, self-help groups, happiness, mind and spirit exhibitions - Until 1973, australians only had two options for where + how they could get married (church or registry office) o Today 80%+ wedding ceremonies now performed by civil celebrants (up from 50% in 2021) Ecumenical movements within Christianity: - Increasingly secularised society - Involvement in issues of peace and social justice to renew relevance - Multifaith society requires ongoing dialogue with those who have different beliefs and practices - In australia today, relationships between Christian churches (ecumenism) and relations between various religious traditions (interfaith dialogue) are characterised by mutual tolerance and respect Ecumenism: - Movement among Christian churches to promote the restoration of unity among all Christians -> “collective movement” - Aims to bring branches (denominations) of church back to single community of faith or ‘body of Christ’ Sectarianism = Conflict between two groups of a particular faith - Sectarianism found in other countries is less vigorous in Australia Ecumenism is recent philosophical approach in life of church and australians have supported ecumenical ideas - Uniting Church in Australia - National Council of Churches - NSW Ecumenical Council Uniting church: - Formed 22nd June 1977 - Result of union of three individual churches o Congregational union of australia o Methodist church of australia o Presbyterian church of australia - “most significant ecumenical event in Australia’s history” (Francis Rush – Catholic Archbishop of Brisbane) - Particularly known for social justice approach and support for marginalised sections of society National council of churches in Australia: - Umbrella organisation bringing many of Australia’s churches together - Happens in both practical and organisational cooperation and discussion on faith-bade issues - Officially became NCCA in 1994 with inclusion of Catholic Church NSW Ecumenical Council: - Founded in 1982 - Encourages social justice and operates on an ecumenical level to achieve this - Central bond is that they’re all followers of Christ, so there’s unity amongst adherents o Rather than competing against each other, they come together in accordance with sense of Christian duty - Gives churches shared voice when following religious beliefs and undertakings - Involved in community projects such as helping settle refugees and providing accommodation to poor - Christmas Bowl initiative -> local church projects that aid people with needs - Local + international initiatives allow churches to have more significant impact o If they were separated there wouldn’t be as much impact - Domestic violence project -> raises awareness about how to respond to domestic violence and how to support survivors - Commission on middle east -> international initiative where member churches come together to advocate for Christians, minority groups and asylum seekers in Middle East Interfaith Dialogue:  Move to greater cooperation and harmony between people of different religious traditions  Involves positive communication and cooperation resulting from discussion between different faiths  Often involves discussing matters of societal + faith concern  Often led by ecumenical groups within a religion Example: NCCA (est. 1994) has ongoing dialogue with Australian Federation of Islamic Councils and Executive Council of Australian Jewry - Important to include all sectors of each religion “No World Peace without peace between the religions” Importance of interfaith dialogue: - Topics impact everyday Australian life - Discussing impacts of belief or behaviour reduces tension and misunderstanding - Some topics of community concern are important not only to religious community but also wider secular society of Australia and the world * Building understanding, goodwill and sense of community * Consider issues as a whole community * Encourages and allows individuals to learn about each other and different faiths * Encourages activities and projects of commonality within and between faiths * Importance for young people -> idealism and enthusiasm of youth Recent interfaith initiatives: 1991: Australian Council of Christians and Jews - Goal is to recognise common heritage and promote understanding 2004: The Columban Centre for Christian-Muslim Dialogue - Located in Turramurra -> focuses on dialogue between Christians and Muslims particularly among women 2007: one of largest groups to attend the Dalai Lama’s visit to Canberra was the Association for Studies of Religion Presently: as recognised by Cambridge text, the provision of Studies of Religion in the NSW HSC is, in itself, an example of interfaith dialogue 2023: last world parliament of religions in Chicago (where all faiths come together) Atomi Notes (need to fix): Current religious landscape in Australia: Christianity as major religious tradition: Immigration: - Most immigration from Britain 1945: migration brought Christianity into Australia (mainly Catholicism) - Was mainly impacted by new variety of ethnic backgrounds 1945-60: jews arrive from Europe 1960: drastic moves to restrict racial diversity in Australia 1973: white australia policy abandoned - Planned program for asian immigration 1975: asian immigration dramatically increased following Vietnam War - Australia accepted 120,000 refugees from Indochina Post 1975: spike in total Muslim population in Australia Denominational switching: People moving between sects of Christianity - Only comes from people who attend church - Source of information is from National Church Life Survey o Only 8% of people attend church - Christianity not further defined was biggest growing Christian response in 2016+2021 Rise of new age religions: Alternative spiritualities that aim to foster personal happiness, health and meaning in life - Popular bc traditional religions fail to resonate with modern people Mind, body, spirit festival -> Secularism: Belief religion should not interfere with or be integrated into public affairs of society - Promotes ideas that society would be better off by not being controlled by religion o Pluralism: diversity of beliefs and cultures o Individualism, materialism and scepticism towards supernatural as result of scientific progression o Disillusionment Ecumenism: • Impact of movements within australia (syllabus dot point) - Movement for dialogue and mutual understanding between Christian Churches o Response to immigration post 1945 National council of churches australia (NCCA): - Formed 1944 and consists of 18 member Churches across Australia - Runs programs o Act for peace o Safe church awareness o Australian churches refugee taskforce  Aims to apply Christian moral voice to suffering of refugees and asylum seekers  Gives combined Christian churches political voice in scheme of australia’s secularism  Combined power of churches means they have bigger impact on this social issue o Christmas bowl mission  Sends aid assistance to countries throughout Africa, asia, middle east and pacific NSW ecumenical council: - Formed 1982 with 18 member churches - Runs many initiatives o Domestic violence project  Allows church to have greater impact together rather than being separate o Commission on middle east  International initiative where member churches come together to advocate Christians, minority groups and asylum seekers in middle east How to answer a 5 marker: - Combine content with census data dot point - Always refer to stimulus explicitly o Look for dates, change in denomination, changed services offered 1) Intro -> Identify changes in australia’s religious landscape a. Denominational switching b. Immigration c. Secularisation 2) Explanation -> go through each change, referencing the syllabus Extra class notes: - Salvation army is a Christian denomination Examine the relationship between aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation Reconciliation: - Process which changes relationship between individuals or groups for the better - Mainly used in Australia to describe way of improving relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians - Involves acknowledgement of injustices of past and dispossession, willingness + commitment to rectify these wrongs where possible, to improve the position of Aboriginal peoples in the future Key events: 1991 -> Land rights movement Dec 10, 1992 -> Redfern speech (PM Paul Keating) May 28, 2000 -> Sorry Day Sydney Harbour Bridge walk - More than 250 000 people walked across bridge to press Federal Government to apologise Feb 13, 2008 -> Federal Government apology - PM Rudd apologised on behalf of the Parliament and Government of Australia for past injustices - Stated apology was to “Remove a stain from the soul of Australia” and “It was time for all Australians, to come together, truly reconcile and together build a truly great nation” Kanyani video notes: - Country is family for Indigenous people o They live in + amongst nature e.g. walking around in natural state, no houses (huts) and sleep under the stars on the earth o All animals living with them are family - Born from Mother Earth and supported by her o “she looks after us with meat, bush tucker as well as water” - Trained to look after ceremonies, land and each other -> main importance - Never take more than you need and don’t destroy to the level where it cannot produce again o Duty to the land and caring for it - Each person is given totem animals o Not allowed to ever kill that animal - Spirit, psyche, mental, physical are all connected with every form - Oneness + completeness of oneness for everything - Every inch of land + waterways is sacred Aboriginal Spirituality Dreaming: - Definition: The Dreaming is infinite and links the past with the present to determine the future. It encapsulates the stories of creation and life in Aboriginal culture. - The Dreaming is the central and deepest reality of the Aboriginal world. - It is the spiritual dimension of reality that has existed from the beginning and continues to be present in all aspects of life. o The Dreaming is inextricably linked with the land Characteristics and features of the Dreaming - Dreaming is experiences through songs, stories, rituals and symbols. - Dreaming establishes the lore linking the relationship between Aboriginal people, the land, and all things associated with Aboriginal life. - This is evident through: o Kinship structures of society o Rules and obligations for social behaviours o Ceremonies performed to maintain the life of the land. - Quote: “The Dreaming refers to all that is known and all that is understood. It is the way Aboriginal people explain life and how their world came to being.” – 2024 Aboriginal Art and Culture, Alice Springs Australia. Kinship: - Kinship systems define where a person fits into the community, binding people together in relationships of sharing and obligation to one another and the land. - Connection to Dreaming: o Kinship binds culture, Country, family and community together it is a way of being. o Kinship systems assign the responsibility to transmit the knowledge of the Dreaming from Elders to the younger generation - Quote: “All people with the same skin grouping as my mother’s… They have the right, the same as my mother, to watch over me, to control what I’m doing, to make sure I do the right thing. It’s an extended family thing… It’s a wonderful secure system.” – Wadjularbinna Doomadgee Gungalidda leader, Gulf of Carpentaria, 1996 Ceremonial life: - The spirituality of Aboriginal people comes from their belief and understanding of the Dreaming, and how this has been taught to them throughout generations. - Ceremonial life is an essential expression of the Dreaming, connecting individuals with their ancestors, the land, and each other. Connections between ceremonial life and the Dreaming (STAR) - Stories from the Dreaming describe Aboriginal law and lifestyle, teaching about the way of life - Totems represent the individual as they existed in the Dreaming and carry ceremonial responsibilities (the embodiment of each individual in their primordial state) - Art communicated the Dreaming and the multiple layers of meaning - Rituals form the Dreaming and is a way to relive activities of ancestor spirits Obligations to the land and people - In Aboriginal society, people do not own the land it is a part of them, and it is part of their duty to respect and look after Mother Earth - Land has significance for all First Nations people as the sacred places provide a sense of identity and connection - Relationships within kinship groups connect people to places and define their obligations to each other - The land is an important aspect of Dreaming stories, particularly those associated with the time of Creation. - Custodianship o Custodianship of the land is a sacred duty bestowed upon Aboriginal people by the Dreaming - Sacred Sites o Specific locations are considered sacred because of the physical manifestations of the Dreaming. o These sites require special care and are often the focus of rituals - Sustainability Practices o Dreaming stories often includes teachings on how to care for the land o Practices such as controlled burning and seasonal hunting aim to ensure the land remains healthy for future generations. Aboriginal people believe they are related to, and custodians of natural world - This relationship provides advantages of survival and life and also imposes responsibilities of preservation and education In the land, aboriginal people see evidence of Dreaming and creation Dreaming stories which describe ancestors or Creation are set in land and describe actual land where people live Aboriginal people believe the Dreaming ancestor became the land Aboriginal people describe themselves as being descendants of particular ancestral beings Therefore have continuous and living relationship with features of the land Inseparable from the land and so believe if they are removed from the land then they will die (spiritually not literally) Ceremonial life: - By performing ceremonies, the Dreaming and its giving power loves on through human beings and animals - Ceremonies highlight the connection to the Dreaming, the importance of land, and relationships between people - Examples: initiation ceremony, men’s law and women’s law, funeral ceremonies, celebration ceremonies Purpose of aboriginal ceremonies: Rites of passage Inform all of the new status of the individual e.g. initiations and funerals Information Transfer from elder to younger generation Changes the social custodians of history Personal Support personal friendships Support personal or group activities e.g. intertribal or totemic group trade or cultural meetings Spiritual Maintain the link and connect people with the spiritual world or the Dreaming Types of aboriginal ceremonies: Ceremony Description Initiation ceremony Teaches young people bout the law and the spiritual beliefs Allows them to take their place as an elder in the community Men’s law and women’s law Each tribe has gender-specific roles and ceremonies Respect for individuals and the whole family is shown by accepting men’s and women’s law Funeral ceremonies Rite of passage from the living world to the spirit world Activities can include sprinkling of water, smoking of (bark) coffin, flowers, memory celebration Restriction of naming deceased person Celebration ceremonies Celebrate the telling of a Dreaming story Dancing and artwork happy and joyous The cause of continuation of life itself Ceremonies have changed over recent time bc of the impact of external religious beliefs (mainly Christian) and other social factors which have removed young people from their land and tribal support In some cases aboriginal spiritual beliefs have combined with Christianity in a form of syncretism (syncretism = combing of; coming together of …) Removal from land, kinship, and community has meant important ceremonial connections are becoming less effective Corroboree indicates a ceremony driven by settlers’ vernacular however they took that from one of the aboriginal torres strait islander peoples words for rituals which is ?keraberre? These ceremonies often centre on retelling of Dreaming stories -> singing, dancing, music and mime -> often body of actor is decorated to represent a spirit he/she is portraying Activities for rite of passage -> testing of strength, revelation of knowledge, the removal of the child from the biological mother, seclusion (learn to live of the land), giving of new name/sacred object Burial ceremonies -> death is time where spirit leaves body and returns to ancestor spirits -> certain ceremonies are used to encourage spirit on its journey

Topic 3- Secularisation

the challenge of secularism

medieval secular music

fd week 9: buddhist, hindu, & secular

The Challenge of Secularism

Secular Ethics Test

Gods, Myths, Religion, Secular

Gods, Myths Religion in a secular age

Secularisation in America

Explanations of Secularisation

Secularism DCT

secular leadership

ETHICS MIDTERM KANT'S MORALITY AND FREEDOM According to Kantian Philosophy, FREEDOM is a concept which involved in the moral domain. Kantian Freedom is closely linked to the notion of autonomy meaning "law itself; thus freedom falls obedience to a law that I created myself" "To act freely is to act autonomously. To act autonomously is to actc according to a law I give myself. When I act according to the laws of the natute, demands of social convention, when I pursue pleasure and comfort, I am not acting freely. To act freely is not tocsimply choose a means to a given end.To act freely is to choosecthe end itself, for its own sake." KANTIAN NOTION OF FREEDOM Contrasts of Kant's Notion of Moral Law 1. DUTY vs INCLINATION (morality) only the motive of duty, acting according to the law I give myself confers moral worth to an action. Any other motive, while possibly commendable, cannot give and an action moral worth Scenario 1: Duty vs Inclination A nurse, Maria, is working in a hospital She Is assigned to care for a difficult patient, Mr. Johnson, who is known for being rude and demanding. Maria feels a strong inclination to ignore Mr. Johnson's requests and provide minimal care due to his behavior. However, according to her duty as a nurse, Maria knows she must provide the same level of care to all patients regardless of their behavior. Scenario 2: Duty and inclination in accordance to Emmanuel Kant's Morality Sara, a Muslim American nurse, is working in a hospital where there is a shortage of staff. One day, she finds out that her colleague, Lisa, a Hindu Indian nurse, made a medication error that harmed a patient. Sara knows that according to her duty as a nurse, she should report the error to the authorities. However, Sara also feels a strong inclination to protect Lisa, as they are good friends, and she fears that reporting the error may harm Lisa's career. Scenario 3: Nurse Johnson is assigned to administer medication to patients in a hospital. One day, while on duty, she notices that one of her patients is in severe pain and requires immediate attention. However, Nurse Johnson is feeling exhausted and overwhelmed due to working long hours without a break. Despite knowing her duty to provide timely care to the patient, Nurse Johnson decides to take a break and relax for a while, prioritizing her inclination to rest over her duty to attend to the patient's needs. 2. AUTONOMY vs HETERONOMY (freedom) I am only free when my will is determined autonomously, governed by the law I give myself Being Scenario 1: Autonomy vs. Heteronomy Sarah, a high school student, is given the freedom to choose her extracurricular activities. She decides to join the debate club because she enjoys public speaking and critical thinking. Her parents support her decision but let her make the choice independently. Sarah feels empowered and motivated by her ability to make her own decisions In contrast, Sarah's friend Emily is pressured by her parents to join the school choir despite not having much interest in singing. Her parents believe that being part of the choir will improve Emily's confidence and social skills. Emily feels obligated to obey her parents' wishes, even though she would prefer to explore other activities. Scenario 2 David, a college student, is faced with a difficult decides on about whether to cheat on an upcoming exam. Despite feeling overwhelmed by the pressure to perform well, David chooses not to cheat because he believes it is morally wrong. On the other hand, David's classmate, Tom, decides to cheat on the exam after being persuaded by his friends who argue that everyone else is doing it and that the consequences are minimal. 3. Categorical vs Hypothetical Imperatives (reason) Kant acknowledges two ways in which reason can command the will, two imperatives. Hypothetical Imperatives uses instrumental reason: " If i want X, I must do Y" Hypothetical Imperatives is always conditional. Categorical Imperatives is non-conditional. Situation 1 [categorical] A student wants to pass their exam. If the student wants to pass the exam, they must study diligently Scenario 2 [hypothetical] A person wants to lose weight. If the person wants to lose weight, they must exercise regularly and eat healthily. Scenario 3 [categorical] A nurse encounters a patient in the hospital who requires immediate medical attention. However, the nurse is unsure if she should assist the patient because it is her break time, and she wants to relax. Scenario 4 [ categorical] A nurse is assigned to administer medication to a patient However, the nurse mistakenly believes that she can skip certain safety protocols to save time. ROLE OF FREEDOM IN MORALITY Morality refers to the cultivation of virtue Virtue: the development of character traits so that choosing the good becomes the matter of habit But in order to be truly Virtues, a person must be set free to cultivate such virtue, or not. FREEDOM: THE FOUNDATION OF MORAL ACT Freedom is humans' greates quality, a reflection of our creator. The power rooted in: Reason and Will To Act or Not To Act To Do This or That To Perform Out of Responsibility Good and Evil are forged out from freedom. And that as a person reaches a higher level of freedom, he becomes more capable of higher levels of morality. However, the sinful person becomes a slave. The concept of Freedom is a central premise in Religious Morality, and Secular Culture greatly exalts freedom. FREEDOM AND FREE WILL Freedom is rooted in "reason and will", "to act or not to act", "to do this or that", and to perform deliberate actions on one's own responsibility is a premise in religious morality (i.e. Catholics). Since our secular culture greatly exalts freedom. Freewill "the power of acting without of the constraint necessity or fate" -Oxford Dictionary "the notional capacity or ability to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded. Free will is closely linked to the concepts of moral responsibility, praise, culpability, sin, and other judgements which apply only to actions that are freely chosen." -Philosophical notion FREEDOM FREEWILL Refers to the ability to act according to one’s own will, without coercion or constraint. Often associated with external circumstances, such as legal rights or societal norms Can be limited by external factors, such as laws, regulations, or societal expectations. Implies, the absence of external restrictions on one’s actions Refers to the philosophical concept that individuals have the ability to choose their actions freely. Often associated with internal mental states, such as intentions, desires, and beliefs. Implies the ability to make choice that are not determined by external factors alone. Raises questions about determinism, the idea that all events, including human actions, are ultimately determined by causes to external to the will Reason and Will Difference Similarity Reason -the ability to think, understand, and form judgement based on logic -is often associated with intellect and rationality -more objective and impartial -faculty of the mind - Both involve conscious process and can be influenced by various factors - Both play a role in decision-making and guiding behavior Will -ability to make conscious choices -desire and motivation -more of an intentional process -influenced by emotions and desires Faculty of the soul/spirit -Both are considered important aspects of human nature in many philosophical and psychological theories FREEWILL AGAINST ALL ODDS "if man has freewill, then are we truly free?" Freewill in Philosophy VS Freewill in the Scientific Notion Freedom, Freewill and Chaos Freewill in the Scientific Notion Chaos Theory (Physics and Quantum Mechanics) interdisciplinary area of scientific study and branch of mathematics focused on underlying patterns and deterministic laws of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, and were once thought to have completely random states of disorder and irregularities. Chaos Theory (Psychology) is a theory that explains events that seem unforeseeable and erratic on their surface but are controlled by deterministic explanations. The chaos theory definition is applied to nonlinear systems that are significantly impacted by the circumstances of their starting position. The theory explains that extremely small changes in the initial circumstances of a situation can result in extreme differences later on. Chaos Theory (Leyman's) describes the qualities of the point at which stability moves to instability or order moves to disorder. CHAOS THEORY: Butterfly Effect "one small occurrence can influence a much larger complex system" evokes the idea that a small butterfly flapping its wings could, hypothetically, cause a typhoon. Or it could not - the mind-boggling part of the butterfly effect is that it's virtually impossible to predict whether a small system will lead to chaotic behavior ETHICAL THEORIES I. Consequentalism Il. Moral Subjectivism III. Ethnocentricism IV. Social Contract Theory V. Feminist Ethics VI. Situation Ethics Vil.Divine Command Theory VIII. Natural Law Theory IX. Rawl's Theory of Justice X. Ethical Nursing Theories REASON AND IMPARTIALITY Reason and Impartiality are not absolute to a particular group of people, while Morality is absolute. REASON the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, changing or justifying practices, intitutions, and beliefs bassed on new or existing information (Kompridis, 2000) CONSEQUENTIALISM: Only the consequenecs, or outcomes, of actions matter morally. Acts are deemed to be morally right (or wrong) solely on the basis of their consequeces. e.g.: Lying (considered wrong) Consequentialism: "If lying is may help save a person's life, then lying is deemed to be the right thing to do." theoretical flaw: difficult; no one can predict the future; objectionable Principles of Consequentialism 1. Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act; 2. The better consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. MORAL SUBJECTIVISM Right and Wrong is determined by what YOU, the subject just happens to think or "FEEL" is right or wrong Theories under Moral Subjectivism A. Simple Subjectivism B. Individualist Subjectivism C. Moral Relativism D. Ideal Observer E. Ethical Egoism F. Utilitarianism G. Teleotonlogy H. Deontology I. Virtue Ethics A. Simple Subjectivism view that ethical statements reflect sentiments, personal preferences and feelings rather than objective facts B. Individual Subjectivism Individualist, a view put forward by Protagoras, saying that "there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are individuals in the world." Egoism, maintains that every human being ought to pursue what is in his or her self-interest inclusively. C. Moral Relativism or Ethical Relativism, view that "for a thing to be right, it must be approved by society", leading to the conclusion of different things are right for people in the different societies and different time periods D. Ideal Observer view that 'what is right is determined by the attidtudes that a hypothetical ideal observer"(a being who is perfectly rational, imaginative, and informed) E. Ethical Egoism Right and wrong is determined by what is in your self-interest. Or is it immoral to act contrary to your self-interest based on Psychological Egoism, that WE by nature, act selfishly. Egocentricism and Sociocentrism E1. Egocentricism -the common tendency to consider one's personal opinion. - "an egocentric thinker thinks or does not recognized or even entertain any other opinion; thinks that their opinion alone matters, and all other opinions fare less compared to his own" E2. Sociocentrism - when an entire community (not just an individual) or social group imposes its own worldview and thinks of it as an unquestionable. e.g Religious groups (Islam, Christians, and Jewish) Political Factions Postcolonial Mentality F. Utilitarianism a theory that holds that the best way to make moral decision is to look at the potential consequences of each available choices, then pick the option that either does most to increase happiness or does to increase suffering. G. Teleontology refers to the philosophical study of the nature and essence of teleology, which is the study of purpose or goal-directedness in nature. can be understood as the study of the purpose or ultimate goals behind things, particularly in the context of healthcare and nursing. It involves examining why certain healthcare practices are carried out and what they aim to achieve for the well-being of patients. H. Deleontology or Deontological Ethics is an approach that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequence of those actions I. Virtue Ethics is an excellent trait of character. Is a disposition, well entrenched in its possessor. emphasizes an individual's character as the key element of ethical element of ethical thinking. States that only good people can make good moral decision. Therefore, the best way to be moral is to constantly seek to improve oneself. Virtue ethics encourages nurses to embody virtues like empathy and kindness, which guide their actions and decisions Examples Compassionate Care: A nurse provides emotional support and comfort to a grieving family, demonstrating empathy and compassion. Honest Communication: A nurse is truthful and transparent in communication with patients and families, reflecting honesty as a virtue. Advocacy: A nurse advocates for a patient's needs, showing fairness and a commitment to justice. I1. Eudaimonism holds that the proper goal of human life is eudamonia (which can be variously translated as "happiness") and that this goal can be achieved by a lifetime of practicing arête (the virtues), in one's everyday activities, subject to the exercise of phronesis (practical wisdom) or dilemmas which might aruse. I2. Ethics of Care developed by Annette Baier (1987), is focused upon feminine mentality,wherein it is to exemplified by women such as: taking care of others, patience, ability to nurture, and self sacrifice, etc. I3. The Theory of Natural believe that every person is endowed with certain inalienable rights, such as right to life, right to property, right to liberty. Kant's Good Will and Sense of Duty to act out of sense of moral "obligation" or "duty" ETHNOCENTRISM -is the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture. It involves judging other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture, often leading to a biased perspective where one's own culture is seen as the "norm" or the standard by which all other cultures are measured. Ethnocentrism can result in prejudice, discrimination, and misunderstanding towards other cultures. Implications for Nursing Practice Cultural Imposition: Nurses may unintentionally impose their own cultural beliefs on patients, which can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. For example, a nurse might assume that a patient's reluctance to accept a particular treatment is due to ignorance rather than cultural beliefs Barriers to Communication: Ethnocentrism can create barriers in communication between nurses and patients. When nurses view their cultural norms as superior, they may struggle to understand the perspectives of patients from different backgrounds, leading to ineffective communication and reduced trust. Impact on Patient Compliance: Patients who perceive that their cultural beliefs are not respected may be less likely to comply with medical advice or treatment plans. This non-compliance can result in poorer health outcomes and increased healthcare disparities among ethnocultural groups IV. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY posits that moral obligations arise from agreements among individuals in society. It suggests that ethical rules are those that rational individuals would agree to for mutual benefit. Application in Nursing in nursing, social contract theory can inform professional codes of conduct and ethical standards that nurses agree to uphold. Examples Professional Codes: Nurses adhere to professional codes that outline ethical responsibilities, such as respecting patient rights and maintaining professional boundaries. Teamwork: Nurses work collaboratively with other healthcare professionals based on agreed-upon roles and responsibilities. Patient Rights: Nurses respect and advocate for patient rights such as the right to refuse treatment, as part of their professional obligations. V. FEMINIST ETHICS a complex set of interrelated perspectives that emphasize interpersonal concerns such as caring, interdependence, and the ethical requirements of particular relationships. Such concerns are traditionally identified with women, but Feminist Ethics should not be thought of as a theory only for women. Feminist ethics can guide care that prioritizes empathy, nurturing, and the well-being of patients and their families. Examples Holistic Care: Nurses provide care that considers the emotional and social needs of patients, not just their physical health. Supportive Relationships: Nurses foster supportive relationships with patients and their families, emphasizing care and empathy Advocacy for Vulnerable Groups: Nurses advocate for the rights and needs of vulnerable patient groups, reflecting a commitment to social justice. VI. SITUATION ETHICS argues that ethical decisions should be made based on the unique circumstances of each situation, rather than adhering to fixed rules. Sițuation ethics can guide decisions that require flexibility and adaptation to individual patient needs. Examples: Emergency Situations: In emergency situations, nurses mayneed to act quickly without following standard protocols, prioritizing immediate patient needs. Cultural Sensitivity: Nurses adapt care practices to respect the cultural beliefs and values of diverse patients. End-of-Life Care: Nurses make decisions about end-of-life care based on the specific needs and wishes of the patient and their family. VII. DIVINE COMMAND THEORY (DCT) is a metaethical theory that posits that moral values and obligations are grounded in the commands of God. According to this theory, actions are morally right if they align with God's commands and morally wrong if they contradict them. This perspective asserts that morality is not based on human reasoning or societal norms but is derived from divine authority. Is higher than human act Key Features of DCT 1.God's Sovereignty: DCT emphasizes that God's will is the ultimate foundation for all moral principles. What God commands is inherently good, while what He forbids is inherently bad. 2. Objective Moral Standards: The theory asserts that moral truths exist independently of human opinions or cultural contexts. These truths are rooted in divine commands. 3. Moral Simplicity: Actions can be categorized as right or wrong based on their alignment with God's commands, making moral decision-making straightforward according to this framework. 4. Religious Texts as Guidance: Ethical guidance is derived from sacred texts, such as the Bible or the Qur'an, which provide the commandments and principles that followers are expected to uphold. 5. Absolute Moral Laws: Since God's commands are seen as unchanging, the moral laws derived from them are also considered fixed and universal. 6. Limitations on Autonomy: Adherents to DCT may find their personal freedoms constrained by divine dictates, emphasizing obedience to religious laws over individual preferences. Applications of DCT in Nursing: Guiding Ethical Decisions Nurses who subscribe to DCT may use their understanding of divine commands to guide their ethical decisions in clinical settings

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