Homologous Recombination and DNA Repair

Genetic Mutations and Repair Mechanisms Flashcards

DNA Replication and Repair

Cell cycle is a 4-stage process that takes place in a cell as the cell grows and divides. Each complete cell division will result in two daughter cells. The four stages of cell division are Gap 1 ( G₁ phase ), Synthesis (S phase), Gap 2 ( G₂ phase ) and mitosis. Figure 3 Figure 3 - The G₁, S and G₂ phases are also known as interphase. The process of mitosis and cytokinesis are also called M phase. Stages of cell division Mitosis Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides to form two new identical daughter cells. The two daughter cells contain the same number of chromosomes and genetic content as their parent cell. Mitosis can be divided into 4 phases: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Figure 4 Figure 4 - 1. During prophase, chromatin condenses and becomes tightly coiled to form chromosome structure. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined together at the centromere. At the end of prophase, nucleolus disappear and nuclear membrane disintegrates. Figure 5 Figure 5 - 2. Metaphase follows after prophase. Centrioles migrate to the opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle/spindle fibres are fully formed. All the chromosomes are lined up randomly at the metaphase/equatorial plate. Metaphase ends when the centromeres divide. Figure 6 Figure 6 - 3. Anaphase begins when the sister chromatids separate at the centromere. Shortening of the spindle fibres pull the sister chromatids apart to the opposite poles. The separated chromatids are referred to as daughter chromosomes. Anaphase ends when the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell. Figure 7 Figure 7 - 4. Telophase begins when the sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell respectively. The chromosomes then start to uncoil to become their original fine chromatin threads again. Nucleoli and nuclear membrane are reformed. Spindle fibres disappear and the process of mitosis is now complete. Cytokinesis follows after the telophase stage. The Differences between Mitosis and Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells In plant cells, the spindle fibres form even though they do not have centrioles. The differences in the cytokinesis process in animal and plant cells can be seen in the figures below. Figure 8 Figure 8 - 1. In animal cells, the microfilaments in the cytoplasm contract pull a ring of plasma membrane inwards. The cytoplasm is constricted in the middle of the cell between two nuclei. Figure 9 Figure 9 - 2. The formation of cleavage furrow pinches at the equator of the cell. Figure 10 Figure 10 - 3. The cleavage furrow deepens progressively until the cell separates, forming two daughter cells. Figure 11 Figure 11 - 1. In plant cells, membrane-enclosed vesicles form and gather at the equator of the cell. Figure 12 Figure 12. - 2. The vesicles join together to form a cell plate. Figure 13 Figure 13 - 3. The cell plate divides the cell into two daughter cells. Cellulose produced by the cell strengthens the newly formed cell wall. The Necessity of Mitosis Controlled mitosis is important because the genetic information carried by the chromosomes is necessary for proper functioning of an organism. Mitosis is important in cell repair and regeneration. Here are some examples where mitosis plays an important role: Lizards grow new tail if their tails break Starfish replaces lost arms by mitosis Liver cells divide to replace damaged and injured tissues Stem cells culture to produce meats Animal cloning (Dolly, the sheep)

CASA06A-AIRCRAFT MATERIALS: INSPECTION TESTING AND REPAIR

CASA06A-AIRCRAFT MATERIALS: COMPOSITE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION AND REPAIRS

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Chapitre 1 2. Platon Greek philosopher who believed the best society is ruled by wise and educated leaders (“philosopher-kings”). 3. Polis An independent Greek city-state with its own government and laws. 4. Aristote Greek philosopher who believed government should work for the common good and serve its citizens. 6. Aristocratie A government ruled by a small group of noble or privileged people. 7. Oligarchie A government controlled by a small group of powerful or wealthy people. 11. Bureaucratie A system where government decisions are carried out by officials and administrators. 12. Pouvoir exécutif The branch of government that enforces laws and runs the country day-to-day. 13. Parlement An elected group of representatives that makes laws. 14. Gouvernement autoritaire A government where one leader or small group holds most of the power and limits freedoms. 15. Pouvoir législatif The branch of government responsible for creating laws. 17. Pouvoir judiciaire The branch of government that interprets laws and operates the courts. 20. Nationalisme Strong pride in and loyalty to one’s nation, culture, and people. 21. Hobbes Believed people are naturally selfish and need a strong government to maintain order and security. 22. Locke Believed all people have natural rights (life, liberty, and property) that governments must protect. 23. Rousseau Believed political power comes from the people and governments should follow the “general will” of society. 25. Constitutionnalisme The principle that government power is limited by a constitution and laws. 26. Adam Smith Father of capitalism; believed free markets and competition create wealth and prosperity. 30. Marx Believed capitalism creates inequality because the rich control production; supported a classless society. 31. La bourgeoisie In Marxism, the wealthy class that owns businesses and the means of production. 37. Monarchie héréditaire A monarchy where power passes from one family member to another through inheritance. 38. Magna Carta A document signed in 1215 that limited the king’s power and established that everyone must follow the law. 40. Rapatrié The return of people, cultural objects, or remains to their country or homeland. 41. Représentation proportionnelle An electoral system where parties receive seats in proportion to the percentage of votes they earn. ⸻ Chapitre 1 (suite) 43. Coup d’État The sudden and often illegal removal of a government from power. 45. Totalitarisme A system where the government controls nearly every aspect of society, politics, and daily life. 48. Référendum A direct vote by citizens to accept or reject a law or political proposal. 49. Organisation non gouvernementale (ONG) An independent organization that works on social, humanitarian, or international issues without being controlled by a government. ⸻ Chapitre 2 1. Idéologie politique A set of beliefs and values about how government and society should function. 2. Libéralisme An ideology that values individual rights, freedom, democracy, and equality before the law. 3. Conservatisme An ideology that values tradition, stability, and gradual change rather than rapid reform. 4. Échiquier politique A spectrum used to compare political beliefs, usually from left to right. 5. Centriste A person whose political views are moderate and fall between the left and right. 7. Libertarianisme The belief that people should have maximum personal freedom and government should have very limited power. 11. Égalitariste A person who believes everyone should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment. 12. Utilitarisme The idea that decisions should create the greatest happiness or benefit for the greatest number of people. 16. Syndicats Organizations that represent workers and protect their rights, wages, and working conditions. 17. Totalitarisme A political system where the state has complete control over society and citizens. 18. Anarchisme The belief that society can function without a government or centralized authority. 19. Communisme A system where property and resources are collectively owned and social classes no longer exist. 21. Socialisme An economic and political system where important industries are owned or controlled by society or the government to reduce inequality. 23. Syndicalisation The process of joining or creating a labour union. 24. Socialisme démocratique An ideology that supports democracy while using government policies to reduce economic inequality. 28. Adam Smith Believed economic freedom, competition, and free trade benefit society. 29. Capitalisme An economic system based on private ownership, profit, competition, and free markets. ⸻ Chapitre 2 (suite) 30. Mercantilisme The belief that a country becomes richer by controlling trade and exporting more than it imports. 31. Laisser-faire An economic idea that government should interfere as little as possible in the economy. 32. Fascisme An extreme authoritarian ideology that promotes nationalism, obedience to the state, and strong centralized power. 36. Libre-échange Trade between countries with few or no tariffs, taxes, or restrictions. 37. Privatisation The transfer of a government-owned business or service to private ownership. 41. Nationaliser To transfer a private company or industry into government ownership. 46. Féminisme A movement and ideology that seeks equal rights and opportunities for all genders. 47. Mouvement social A group of people working together to create social or political change. 51. Écologisme A movement and ideology focused on protecting the environment and promoting sustainability. 54. Justice sociale Chapitre 3 1. Désobéissance civile The peaceful and deliberate breaking of a law to protest something considered unjust. 2. Religion civile Shared beliefs, symbols, and values that unite a nation and create a sense of national identity. 3. Religion d’État A religion that is officially recognized and supported by a government. 4. Diaspora A group of people living outside their ancestral homeland while maintaining ties to their culture. 5. L’Holocauste The genocide of approximately six million Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II. 6. Djihad In Islam, a struggle or effort in the service of God; it can refer to a personal spiritual struggle or, in some cases, armed defense of the faith. 7. Théocratie A form of government where religious leaders rule and religious law guides the state. 8. Suffrage The right to vote in elections. 9. Siècle des Lumières An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights. 10. La séparation de l’Église et de l’État The principle that government and religious institutions should remain independent from one another. 11. Dogme A principle or belief accepted as unquestionably true by a religion or ideology. 12. Fondamentalisme A movement that seeks a strict return to the original principles of a religion. 13. Démographie The study of populations, including their size, growth, and characteristics. 14. Sionisme A political movement supporting the creation and preservation of a Jewish homeland in Israel. The idea that society should be fair and provide equal rights, opportunities, and access to resources.

DNA Replication and Repair Practice Flashcards

Lect 20 dna mutation and repair

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