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Role of Executive in Parliamentary Democracy The Executive ( the political executive) remains responsible and accountable to the Parliament. Parliament exercises political and financial control over the Executive and ensures administrative oversight over the executive. Subset of Parliament: In the parliamentary system the de facto head of the executive (Prime Minister) is not directly elected by the people, but he is the leader of the majority party in the Parliament. S/He chooses his own Cabinet which again, should be out of the Parliament only. Thus, in parliament democracy, the executive is a subset of the Legislature. The legislature is responsible for making the laws and the executive is responsible for enforcing the laws. In this case, the separation of power between the executive and legislature is not followed in a strict sense. Collective and Individual Responsibilities: The Executive is collectively responsible to the Parliament. It means that the term and tenure of the executive depends on the pleasure of the Lower House of Parliament. The House can introduce a no-confidence motion regarding the removal of the executive (government). The ministers, however, are individually responsible to the President and, ultimately, to the Council of Ministers. Administrative role: The executive's primary responsibility is to maintain internal peace and order, while also ensuring the country's safety from external aggression, encompassing all activities related to the state's well-being. The executive is also responsible for day-to-day administration. Financial role: The Executive has the authority to formulate the Budget, which is required to be presented annually to Parliament. The Executive has the freedom to determine expenditure levels, acquire funds for various purposes, and raise revenue to meet expenditures, leaving the entire financial initiative to the Government. Role of Parliament: Without the authority of Parliament, the executive, acting through its ministers, cannot raise funds through taxing, borrowing, or any other means. Money bills must originate and pass in the Lok Sabha, which has the exclusive authority to grant money in the form of taxes or loans and to sanction expenditure. Policy initiatives: The political executive, or the Council of Ministers, introduces bills in the house through its party members. The cabinet, the highest order of political executives, initiates and decides public policy concerning almost every sphere of government's activity. Further, delegated legislative functions are performed by the political and permanent executive. These are very important for policy making. Judicial role: The judicial functions are performed by the President of India with the aid and advice of his/her Council of Ministers. It includes the appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, and the power to grant pardon, reprieve, suspension, remission, or commutation of punishment or sentence of a court. Military Functions: The President of India with the Council of Ministers in aid and advice, is also vested with military powers
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Introduction to Ethics Ethics – The study of moral principles governing human behavior. Moral Universe – The idea that morality is fundamental to human life, not justphysical needs. Instrumental Questions – Questions concerning practical actions to achieve mundane goals. Non-Instrumental Questions – Questions about principles that go beyond mere survival or convenience. Branches of Philosophy Metaphysics – The study of the nature of reality. Epistemology – The study of knowledge and belief. Ethics (Moral Philosophy) – The study of what is right and wrong. Aesthetics – The study of beauty and artistic values. Logic – The study of reasoning and argumentation. Types of Ethical Theories Ideal Theory – Ethical theories that act as guiding principles, though rarely fully applicable in reality. Monistic Theories – Ethical theories that rely on a single principle to determine moral actions. Pluralistic Theories – Ethical approaches that integrate multiple ethical principles. Consequentialism vs. Non-Consequentialism Consequentialist Ethics – Judges actions based on their outcomes. Non-Consequentialist Ethics – Judges actions based on principles, regardless of outcomes. Theory Type Examples Non-Consequentialist Kant’s Deontology, Rights Theories, Religious Ethics Consequentialist Utilitarianism, Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics Kantian Ethics (Deontology) Immanuel Kant – 18th-century philosopher who founded deontological ethics. Categorical Imperative – A universal moral law that dictates ethical behavior. Formula of Universal Law – Act only according to principles that could become universal. Formula of Humanity – Treat others as ends in themselves, not as means. Formula of Autonomy – Act as though you are legislating universal moral law. Autonomy – The ability to self-govern moral decisions. Dignity – The inherent worth of rational beings. Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham – Founder of classical utilitarianism, focused on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. John Stuart Mill – Developed higher and lower pleasures in utilitarianism. Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) – The moral action is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness. Higher vs. Lower Pleasures – Higher pleasures (intellectual, artistic) are superior to lower (bodily) pleasures. Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics (Eudaimonism) Eudaimonia – Human flourishing, the highest good. Arete – Excellence or virtue in fulfilling one’s purpose. Doctrine of the Mean – Virtue lies between extremes of excess and deficiency. Phronesis – Practical wisdom for making ethical decisions. Hexis – A stable character trait formed through habituation. Telos – The purpose or goal of something. Religious Ethics Jewish Ethics Decalogue (Ten Commandments) – The foundational moral code in Judaism. Halakhah – Jewish law guiding moral and religious behavior. Rabbi Hillel’s Golden Rule – “What you dislike, don’t do to others.” Christian Ethics Imago Dei – The belief that humans are made in the image of God. The Beatitudes – Teachings from Jesus emphasizing humility, mercy, and justice. Agape – Selfless, unconditional love. Nietzsche’s Critique – Claimed Christian ethics promote “slave morality.” Islamic Ethics Five Pillars of Islam: Shahadah – Declaration of faith. Salah – Daily prayer. Zakat – Almsgiving. Sawm – Fasting during Ramadan. Hajj – Pilgrimage to Mecca. Jihad – The struggle to maintain faith and righteousness. Islamic Contributions – Advances in science, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Rights and Natural Law Natural Rights – Fundamental entitlements derived from human nature. Social Contract – The idea that individuals consent to governmental authority in exchange for protection of rights. Hohfeldian Analysis – A framework for understanding different kinds of rights. Forms of Rights: Claims – Demands imposed on others. Powers – The ability to enforce or alter legal arrangements. Liberties – Freedom from external restrictions. Immunities – Protection from harm or coercion. Justifications for Rights Deontological Justification (Kant) – Rights come from moral duties. Utilitarian Justification (Mill, Bentham) – Rights exist to maximize happiness. Theological Justification – Rights are God-given. Natural Law Justification – Rights arise from nature and reason. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Pre-Conventional Level – Morality based on avoiding punishment or seeking reward. Conventional Level – Morality based on social approval and maintaining order. Post-Conventional Level – Morality based on universal ethical principles. Social and Political Ethics Discrimination and the Idea of Race – Ethical issues surrounding racial discrimination. Business Ethics – Ethical principles in commerce and trade. Euthanasia – Moral debates about assisted dying. Sexual Ethics – Ethics concerning sexual relationships and behaviors. Crime and Punishment – The morality of justice systems and punishment. War, Terrorism, and Cosmopolitanism – Ethics concerning conflict and global responsibility
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