Ovid: Advice to a Rejected Lover

Lesson 4.3: Reducing Front-End Loads

Philosophy Exam 1 ⸻ Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) 1. Id – Ego – Superego Freud explains personality as a system of three interacting structures that are in constant conflict. * Id The id is entirely unconscious and represents instinctual drives such as aggression, hunger, and sexual desire. It operates on the pleasure principle, meaning it demands immediate satisfaction without considering reality, morality, or consequences. It is irrational and purely driven by biological impulses. * Ego The ego develops to mediate between the id and external reality. It operates on the reality principle, meaning it tries to satisfy instinctual desires in realistic and socially acceptable ways. It uses reasoning, planning, and delayed gratification. It is partly conscious and responsible for decision-making. * Superego The superego represents internalized moral values and social rules learned from parents and society. It judges behaviour and produces feelings of guilt or pride depending on whether actions align with moral standards. It often conflicts with the id by imposing strict moral constraints. Key idea: personality results from the continuous tension between instinct (id), reality (ego), and morality (superego). ⸻ 2. Defence Mechanisms Defence mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between the id, superego, and reality. They distort perception in order to protect the individual from psychological discomfort. * Repression Unacceptable thoughts or memories are pushed into the unconscious and become inaccessible, although they may still influence behaviour indirectly. * Denial The individual refuses to accept a painful or threatening reality. * Projection The person attributes their own unacceptable feelings or impulses to others. * Displacement Emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer target. * Rationalization The individual creates false but logical explanations for behaviour in order to avoid guilt or anxiety. * Reaction Formation An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite behaviour. * Regression Under stress, the individual returns to earlier, more childish patterns of behaviour. * Sublimation Unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable or productive activities. * Intellectualization Emotional situations are dealt with through abstract or logical thinking to avoid confronting feelings. * Compensation The individual develops strengths in one area to make up for weaknesses in another. * Identification The person adopts the traits or behaviours of another individual to reduce anxiety or increase self-esteem. * Undoing The person attempts to symbolically cancel out unacceptable thoughts or actions through corrective behaviour. Key idea: defence mechanisms are automatic, unconscious, and protect the ego by distorting reality. ⸻ 3. Psychosexual Stages Freud argues that personality develops through stages where psychic energy (libido) is focused on different parts of the body. Fixation at a stage can influence adult personality. * Oral stage (0–1): pleasure through feeding; fixation may lead to dependence or oral habits. * Anal stage (1–3): focus on control and toilet training; fixation may lead to orderliness or messiness. * Phallic stage (3–6): development of gender identity and early moral awareness; family dynamics are central. * Latency stage (6–puberty): sexual energy is dormant; focus on learning and social development. * Genital stage (puberty onward): mature sexuality and adult relationships. Key idea: early childhood experiences strongly shape adult personality. ⸻ René Descartes 1. Dualism Descartes argues that reality is composed of two fundamentally different substances: * Mind (res cogitans): non-physical substance responsible for thinking, consciousness, reasoning, and doubt. * Body (res extensa): physical substance that occupies space and follows mechanical laws. Although distinct, mind and body interact, creating the mind–body problem of how two different substances can influence each other. Key idea: humans are composed of both mental and physical substances that are fundamentally different. ⸻ 2. Rationalism Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, more reliable than sensory experience. Descartes argues that the senses can deceive us through illusions and dreams, so knowledge must be based on clear and distinct ideas produced by reason. He uses methodic doubt, systematically doubting all uncertain beliefs until reaching something absolutely certain. Key idea: reliable knowledge must come from reason rather than the senses. ⸻ 3. Cogito: “I think therefore I am” Descartes establishes that even radical doubt proves existence. If he is doubting, he must be thinking; if he is thinking, he must exist as a thinking being. Key idea: the act of thinking guarantees the existence of the self. ⸻ Plato 1. Ideal Society Plato’s political philosophy divides society into three classes corresponding to parts of the human soul: * Rulers (philosopher-kings): guided by reason and wisdom; they govern society. * Guardians: guided by courage; they protect and defend the state. * Producers: guided by desire; they provide material goods and services. Justice occurs when each class performs its proper function without interfering in the roles of others. Key idea: social justice is harmony through specialization and proper role distribution. ⸻ 2. Theory of Forms Plato distinguishes between two levels of reality: * The physical world: constantly changing, imperfect, and perceived through the senses. * The world of Forms: eternal, perfect, and unchanging essences such as Beauty, Justice, and Equality. Physical objects are imperfect copies of these perfect Forms. Key idea: true knowledge is knowledge of eternal Forms, not sensory appearances. ⸻ 3. Allegory of the Cave Plato describes prisoners chained in a cave who see only shadows and believe them to be reality. One prisoner escapes and discovers the real world illuminated by the sun, which represents truth. When he returns, the others reject him. Key idea: education is the process of moving from illusion to truth, which is difficult and often resisted. ⸻ Francis Bacon 1. Four Idols of the Mind Bacon identifies four sources of systematic error in human thinking: * Idols of the Tribe: universal human biases in perception and reasoning. * Idols of the Cave: individual biases shaped by personal experience and education. * Idols of the Marketplace: errors caused by language and communication. * Idols of the Theatre: blind acceptance of philosophical systems and traditions. Key idea: human reasoning is naturally flawed and must be corrected through scientific method. ⸻ 2. Empiricism Empiricism is the theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation. Bacon argues that scientific knowledge must be based on experimentation, data collection, and systematic observation rather than pure reasoning. Key idea: knowledge is grounded in experience, not abstract speculation. ⸻ 3. Induction vs Deduction Induction is reasoning from specific observations to general laws. Deduction is reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions. Bacon emphasizes induction as the foundation of scientific knowledge because it is based on empirical evidence. Key idea: science progresses by building general laws from observed facts. ⸻ Friedrich Nietzsche 1. “God is Dead” Nietzsche argues that modern science and secular thinking have undermined the authority of traditional religion as a source of meaning and morality. This leads to a cultural crisis in which old values collapse without being replaced. Key idea: the loss of religious authority creates a crisis of meaning. ⸻ 2. Nihilism Passive nihilism refers to despair and the belief that life has no meaning. Active nihilism refers to the rejection of old values in order to create new ones. Key idea: nihilism represents both the breakdown of meaning and the possibility of creating new values. ⸻ 3. Übermensch The Übermensch is the ideal individual who creates their own values, rejects conformity, embraces life fully, and overcomes traditional moral systems. Key idea: humans must move beyond inherited values and become creators of meaning. ⸻ Charles Darwin 1. Natural Selection Evolution occurs through natural selection. Individuals within a species vary, and those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Over time, these traits become more common in the population. Key idea: evolution is driven by survival advantage rather than purposeful design. ⸻ 2. Morality (Evolutionary view) Darwin argues that morality is not divine but evolved through natural processes. Humans developed social instincts such as empathy and cooperation because these traits improved survival within groups. Key idea: morality is a product of biological and social evolution

Exam 3: Harm Reduction/Abstinence Models, Treatment Settings, General Tips TAY

burning and oxidation

WORD - TRANSCRIPTION - DEFINITION - TRANSLATION to bleed - to lose blood, especially because of an injury brim (n) - the part of a hat that sticks out around the edge; криси (капелюха) to set up a line of defense - to organise and prepare a system or group of actions to protect against attack, criticism, or danger; вибудувати / організувати лінію захисту; підготувати оборону liquid asset (n) - an asset that can be easily converted into cash; ліквідний актив stuff (v) - to push or put something into a small space, especially in a quick or careless way; запихати, набивати, засувати (щось у щілину або простір); to be offended (verb phrase) - to feel upset, annoyed, or hurt because of something someone has said or done that you think is rude or insulting; ображатися; бути ображеним to nag (v) - to keep complaining or asking someone to do something, often in an annoying way; пилити; докучати; бурчати; постійно нагадувати/дорікати cello (n) - a large musical instrument in the violin family, played by holding it between the legs while sitting; віолончель disgraceful (adj.) - deserving strong criticism or disapproval because it is very bad or unacceptable; ганебний; соромний; негідний humiliating (adj.) - making someone feel ashamed or stupid and lose their respect for themselves; принизливий; той, що принижує гідність decree (n) - an official order given by a person or authority with power; указ; декрет; постанова hereby (adverb) - (formal) used to say that something is done or agreed in this way; цим; цим самим; цим документом (офіційно) severely (adverb) - in a strict or harsh way; суворо; жорстко go to the gutter (idiom/phrase) - to reside (v.) - to live in a particular place; проживати; мешкати to turn a blind eye (idiom) - cartloads (noun, plural) - the amount of something that fills a cart; віз (вантажу); вози (чогось), повні вози (перен. багато) gentile (noun/adjective) - неєврей; людина неєврейського походження ghetto (n.) - бідний район міста; неблагополучний район to beat up (phrasal verb) - to hit someone hard and repeatedly in order to hurt them; побити; відлупцювати; жорстоко побити; cesspool (n) - a place or situation that is morally very bad or dirty; осередок бруду; моральне болото to keep somebody’s spirits up (idiom/phrase) - conspirator (n) - a person who takes part in a secret plan with other people to do something illegal or harmful; змовник; учасник змови curfew (n) - a rule that says people must stay indoors after a particular time, especially at night; комендантська година incision (n) - надріз; розріз (особливо хірургічний); a cut made in something with a sharp tool, especially during a medical operation to burst (v) - to break open or apart suddenly, or to come out suddenly; anesthetized (verb, past participle, adj.) - to give someone drugs so that they do not feel pain, especially during a medical operation; анестезований; знеболений; під наркозом parasite (n) - (disapproving) a person who lives by taking advantage of others and giving nothing in return; нахлібник; дармоїд; експлуататор apathy (n) - a feeling of not being interested in or enthusiastic about anything, or not caring about what happens; байдужість to get a bite to eat (idiom/phrase) - to have a small meal or snack; перекусити; з’їсти щось швидко (перекус) to declare (v) - to interfere with other people’s business (phrase) to insult (v) - to say or do something that is rude or offensive to someone; ображати; принижувати imperative (adj/noun) - to look on the bright side (idiom/phrase) stinking ( adj.) - having a very bad smell; смердючий; дуже неприємний на запах; slaughter (n) - the killing of animals for food; the killing of many people in a violent way; забій (тварин); різанина; масове вбивство; to lead somebody to their death like sheep (idiom/phrase) - to make people go to their death passively, without resistance, like a group that blindly follows; вести когось на смерть, як овець; гнати на смерть покірно, без спротиву a stain on sth (e.g. on one’s reputation/honour) (idiom/phrase) - something that damages the reputation or image of a person, group, or thing; пляма на (репутації / честі); те, що ганьбить to wipe somebody out (phrasal verb) - знищити; стерти з лиця землі to squander (v) - to waste money, time, or opportunities in a careless or foolish way; марнувати; розтринькувати; розбазарювати; cripple (n) - (offensive) a person who is unable to walk or has a physical disability; як іменник це слово вважається образливим, тому краще використовувати нейтральні варіанти (наприклад, a person with a disability) log (n) - to smother - to prevent a feeling or reaction from being expressed; пригнічувати (почуття, емоції)ж rattle (n) - a series of short, sharp sounds; or a toy that makes a noise when shaken; брязкіт; деренчання; брязкальце to revenge (v) - melting pot (n) - a place or situation in which many different cultures, styles, or people mix together and influence each other; “плавильний котел” (місце змішання культур); багатокультурне середовище the quicker, the better (phrase / comparative structure) - used to say that something should be done as fast as possible; чим швидше, тим краще at ease (phrase / adverbial expression) - (military) in a relaxed position after being told to stop standing at attention; (військ.) «вільно!» (команда) resettlement (n) - the act of helping people to live in a new place, especially after they have been forced to leave their home; переселення; повторне поселення; розселення (після вимушеного переїзду) to exterminate (v) - to kill all the members of a group of people or animals; винищувати; знищувати повністю; to dismiss (v) - to end an official meeting or court case; розпускати (засідання, суд) brimstone (n) - slavery (n) - the system of owning people as property and forcing them to work; рабство rapist (n) - a person who commits rape; ґвалтівник; злочинець, що вчиняє зґвалтування to slash sth/sb - to cut someone or something with a sharp object; or to reduce something greatly; різати; розсікати; сильно скорочувати filthy (adj.) - very dirty; брудний; дуже брудний indiscriminately (adverb) - in a way that does not show careful judgment or choice; без розбору; без розрізнення; не вибірково to draw (the curtains) (v) - to open or close curtains by pulling them across a window; завісити / розсунути штори; зачиняти або відчиняти штори at the heart of the lion’s den (idiom/phrase) - in the most dangerous or hostile place or situation, surrounded by people who are unfriendly or threatening; у самому серці лігва лева; у дуже небезпечному або ворожому середовищі jaundice (n) - a medical condition that causes the skin and the whites of the eyes to become yellow; жовтяниця to jilt (v) - to suddenly end a romantic relationship with someone, especially in an unfair or unkind way; кинути (у стосунках); різко розірвати стосунки; відшити (розм.) to beat the shit out of somebody (very informal / vulgar phrase) - to hit someone very hard and violently; жорстоко побити когось; сильно відлупцювати (розм., вульг.) on your behalf (phrase) - used to mean that someone does something for you or in your place; від твого імені; замість тебе; на твоє прохання inflammation (n, uncountable) - a condition in which a part of your body becomes red, swollen, and painful because of infection or injury; запалення gallbladder (n) - a small organ in the body that stores bile, a liquid that helps digest fat; жовчний міхур levulose (laevulose) (noun, uncountable) - an old name for fructose, a type of sugar found in fruit and honey; фруктоза grenade (n) - a small bomb that is thrown by hand or fired from a gun; граната attic (n) - the space or room at the top of a building directly under the roof; горище; мансарда murderer (noun, plural: murderers) - a person who deliberately kills another person; вбивця; душогуб assassin (n) - a person who kills someone important for political or religious reasons, usually for money or as part of a plan; вбивця (політичний/найманий); найманий кілер; асасин; barbed wire (n, uncount

Sustainable Soil Management - Reduced Tillage

Waste reduction

C7.2 Oxides

APES - 9.1 & 9.2 - Stratospheric Ozone Depletion and Reducing Ozone Depletion

Fats and Beta Oxidation

Oxidation Numbers & Redox

AQA GCSE Physics Paper 2

Pruebita de vocabulario #6: descubrir --> reducir

pt 4: Adrenal gland structure Cortex (steroids) + medulla (catecholamines) Three adrenal cortex layers Zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis Zona glomerulosa Secretes aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) Aldosterone function Increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ excretion; raises blood pressure Aldosterone release triggered by Low BP, high K+, renin-angiotensin system, ACTH Renin-angiotensin system Low BP → renin → Ang I → Ang II → aldosterone + vasoconstriction Zona fasciculata Secretes cortisol (glucocorticoid) Cortisol function Increases glucose, suppresses immune system, maintains blood pressure High cortisol effects Immune suppression, muscle wasting, hyperglycemia Zona reticularis Secretes adrenal androgens Adrenal androgens Weak sex hormones contributing to puberty and libido Adrenal medulla hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine Epinephrine effects Increases heart rate, metabolic rate Norepinephrine effects Increases vasoconstriction and blood pressure Pancreas function Exocrine (digestive enzymes) + endocrine (insulin, glucagon) Alpha cells in pancreas Produce glucagon Beta cells in pancreas Produce insulin Glucagon function Increases blood glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis Insulin function Decreases blood glucose by increasing cellular uptake Somatostatin from pancreas Inhibits insulin and glucagon release Type 1 diabetes Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → no insulin Type 2 diabetes Insulin resistance; cells do not respond to insulin Effects of insulin Promotes glucose uptake, fat storage, glycogen formation Ovarian hormones Estrogen and progesterone Estrogen function Female development, menstrual cycle regulation Progesterone function Maintains uterus for pregnancy Testicular hormone Testosterone Testosterone functions Male traits, sperm production, libido Placental hormones hCG, estrogen, progesterone hCG function Maintains corpus luteum early in pregnancy Kidney hormone EPO (erythropoietin) EPO function Stimulates RBC production when oxygen is low Heart hormone ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) ANP function Decreases blood pressure by reducing blood volume GI hormones Gastrin, secretin, CCK regulate digestion Skin hormone precursor Produces vitamin D precursor (cholecalciferol) Adipose hormone Leptin Leptin function Signals satiety and regulates metabolism Cushing’s syndrome Excess cortisol → moon face, buffalo hump, high glucose Addison’s disease Low cortisol/aldosterone → fatigue, low BP, hyperpigmentation Pheochromocytoma Adrenal medulla tumor causing excess epinephrine Conn’s syndrome Excess aldosterone → high BP, low K+ Hyperthyroidism symptoms Weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, fast heartbeat Hypothyroidism symptoms Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance Goiter Enlarged thyroid due to iodine deficiency or overstimulation Primary endocrine disorder Problem in the gland itself Secondary endocrine disorder Problem in pituitary or hypothalamus Calcitriol (active vitamin D) Increases Ca2+ absorption in intestines Endocrine disruptors Chemicals interfering with hormone actions

pt 4: Adrenal gland structure Cortex (steroids) + medulla (catecholamines) Three adrenal cortex layers Zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis Zona glomerulosa Secretes aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) Aldosterone function Increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ excretion; raises blood pressure Aldosterone release triggered by Low BP, high K+, renin-angiotensin system, ACTH Renin-angiotensin system Low BP → renin → Ang I → Ang II → aldosterone + vasoconstriction Zona fasciculata Secretes cortisol (glucocorticoid) Cortisol function Increases glucose, suppresses immune system, maintains blood pressure High cortisol effects Immune suppression, muscle wasting, hyperglycemia Zona reticularis Secretes adrenal androgens Adrenal androgens Weak sex hormones contributing to puberty and libido Adrenal medulla hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine Epinephrine effects Increases heart rate, metabolic rate Norepinephrine effects Increases vasoconstriction and blood pressure Pancreas function Exocrine (digestive enzymes) + endocrine (insulin, glucagon) Alpha cells in pancreas Produce glucagon Beta cells in pancreas Produce insulin Glucagon function Increases blood glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis Insulin function Decreases blood glucose by increasing cellular uptake Somatostatin from pancreas Inhibits insulin and glucagon release Type 1 diabetes Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → no insulin Type 2 diabetes Insulin resistance; cells do not respond to insulin Effects of insulin Promotes glucose uptake, fat storage, glycogen formation Ovarian hormones Estrogen and progesterone Estrogen function Female development, menstrual cycle regulation Progesterone function Maintains uterus for pregnancy Testicular hormone Testosterone Testosterone functions Male traits, sperm production, libido Placental hormones hCG, estrogen, progesterone hCG function Maintains corpus luteum early in pregnancy Kidney hormone EPO (erythropoietin) EPO function Stimulates RBC production when oxygen is low Heart hormone ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) ANP function Decreases blood pressure by reducing blood volume GI hormones Gastrin, secretin, CCK regulate digestion Skin hormone precursor Produces vitamin D precursor (cholecalciferol) Adipose hormone Leptin Leptin function Signals satiety and regulates metabolism Cushing’s syndrome Excess cortisol → moon face, buffalo hump, high glucose Addison’s disease Low cortisol/aldosterone → fatigue, low BP, hyperpigmentation Pheochromocytoma Adrenal medulla tumor causing excess epinephrine Conn’s syndrome Excess aldosterone → high BP, low K+ Hyperthyroidism symptoms Weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, fast heartbeat Hypothyroidism symptoms Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance Goiter Enlarged thyroid due to iodine deficiency or overstimulation Primary endocrine disorder Problem in the gland itself Secondary endocrine disorder Problem in pituitary or hypothalamus Calcitriol (active vitamin D) Increases Ca2+ absorption in intestines Endocrine disruptors Chemicals interfering with hormone actions

Reduction of Risk Protention

week 2 - reducing tillage

Reagan's Reduction of Big Government - key facts

Chapter 23: Metabolism: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation