LSAT Prep - Parallel Reasoning Elemental Attack Components

Circuit Fundamentals: Ohm’s Law, Series, and Parallel Circuits

FA2 - PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING

FA1 - PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING

P4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

→ Understand what occurred at the Yalta Conference, including who was present at this meeting -“How do we deal with defeated or liberated countries of Eastern Europe after the war? -Pushed for interim government authority that represents a democracy -USSR would join the war against Japan when Germany is defeated → Claimed they would hold free elections in places freed from Nazi Germany, these free elections did not happen *Memebers present*: FDR (U.S), Churchill (U.K), Stalin (U.S.S.R) → Understand what was discussed at Potsdam, including who was present at this meeting and why that is important. Who is the consistent person at both conferences? → Post-War Germany→ What to do with it? -Confirmed plans to demilitarize Germany and split it into 4 occupied zones -Nuremberg trials tried Nazi’s for war crimes -Potsdam Declaration → Threatened massive attack on Japan unless they surrendered and laid out non-negotiable terms for peace → How did they split Germany? How did they split Berlin? -Split Germany into 4 occupation zones (France, U.S., U.K., U.S.S.R) → Split Berlin into 4 zones, giving the U.S.S.R the majority since Berlin lays in their zone of occupation → Berlin Wall splits Capitalism to the West and Communism to the East Capitalism vs. Communism (Week 10, 4/13: “Capitalism vs. Communism Packet.”) → Understand the fundamental differences between Capitalism and Communism → What major countries are Communist or Capitalist? Communism: USSR, China, North Korea, Vietnam Capitalist: Everyone else (U.S., France, G.B, South Korea) → What is the goal of both economic systems? → Communism: Eliminate social classes, create a classless/moneyless society → Private property is nonexistent, everything is public → Capitalism: Create a free market where individuals have the ability to make their own money and have independence to make their own economic decisions → Private property fuels the capitalist system Arms Race (Week 11, 4/20. “Arms Race PPT Reading”, “Arms Race PPT Dropbox”) → What is an “Arms Race?” Who participated in this “Race?” When two or more countries increase the size of military resources to gain military/political superiority over each other → U.S and U.S.S.R are the countries participating in this Arms Race → Start of the Cold War? → Dropping the nuclear bomb officially started the Arms Race → What type of Arms were being produced by major world powers? Nuclear weapons, ICBMs → How does an Arms Race affect the world/humanity in the world? MAD → If everyone is producing more powerful weapons this puts the world at risk for the possibility of Nuclear War. → If one launches a missile/drops a bomb then the other country retaliates until the world is basically over *The world is at a constant state of fear of the possibility of the unknown and potential end of the war* Space Race (Week 11, 4/22: “Space Race Primary Source Chart”) → What does the “Space Race” imply? Who is racing to space? -Who can get to Space first? The U.S or Soviet Union → Started with the race to space, developed into the race to the moon once the USSR reached space first… U.S reached the moon first → How did the Space Race affect U.S and Soviet Union relations? Greatly intensified Cold War tensions and the constant battle for superiority in any/every way possible for the US and USSR → Led to a greater technological race and a superiority aspect of it for both countries which further increased the need for national defense and funding for specific programs (NASA) Korean War (Week 11, 5/24: “Korean War Webquest”, Week 12, 4/27: “Korean War Textbook Analysis” ) → Who fought in the Korean War? Why was there a conflict in Korea? North Korea, the USSR, and China (communists) vs. South Korea and U.S → Korea used to be under Japanese influence until the end of WWII where it got split up at the 38th parallel by the US and USSR → The war started by the North invading the South and pushing them back to as far south as they could go before the U.S got involved and pushed them back to the 38th parallel and then some → Amercia feared that communism would continue to spread throughout the rest of the Asian continent → What is the legacy of the Korean War today? What is the dividing line between the two Koreas today? North Korea is still communist, South Korea is still capitalist → DMZ (demilitarized zone) at the 38th parallel that is still present today → Nobody won the war, both sides lost? → Forgotten war → Too many casualties → How did the Korean War symbolize the overall theme of the Cold War? This showed how the United States and Soviet Union were at a constant battle with one another and how there is the global struggle between communism and capitalism → Also demonstrated how concerned the United States was with the possible spread of Communism outside of the Soviet Union and how they would do anything to stop the spread Cuban Revolution (Week 12, 4/28: “Cuban Revolution Readings/Guided Questions.”) → Who was the Dictator of Cuba before Castro? Why did he have good relations with the United States? -Castro started to move away from U.S businesses and work more closely with the USSR who supported him. After the Cuban Revolution, the USSR was extremely supportive to Castro and the Cubans → When Castro came to power, how did Cuban relations with the U.S change? How did this change affect the Cuban relationship with the U.S.S.R? -Castro started to move away from U.S businesses and work more closely with the USSR who supported him. After the Cuban Revolution, the USSR was extremely supportive to Castro and the Cubans → Because the U.S openly disliked Castro and were not fans of him due to the change in American business AND the fact that Cuba was turning into a communist nation. → Castro nationalized land and businesses that were owned by the U.S which hurt their economy -Because of the strained relationship with the United States, this strained their relationship and strengthened the relationship between Cuba and the Soviet Union Bay of Pigs (Week 12, 5/1: “Bay of Pigs Packet”) → What was the “Bay of Pigs?” Who initiated this invasion? What was the overall goal of the United States by carrying out this plan? Was it successful? -Bay of Pigs was a failed attempt by the United States to overthrow Fidel Castro -They trained Cuban exiles who opposed Castro’s government to stage an uprising planned by the CIA → Goal was to overthrow Castro and put their own leader in control to benefit U.S business interest *Not successful* Invasion lasted 2 days and this pushed Cuba even closer to the USSR and made Castro look even stronger in Cuba Cuban Missile Crisis (Week 13, 5/4: “Cuban Missile Crisis Primary Source Worksheet”) → What is the “Cuban Missile Crisis?” How did tensions rise so high to almost reach a nuclear war? The U.S had missiles (ICBMs) in Italy and Turkey, close enough to fire at the USSR. The Soviet Union had missiles stationed in newly communist Cuba, 90 miles off the coast of Florida. The threat of a Nuclear War was as close as it ever was because nobody knew when a missile would launch, or who would be the one to launch it. → The U.S put a blockade on Cuba, which to the USSR seemed like an act of war. This increased the tensions between the two countries of who would “blink first” → Where did the U.S have missiles? Where did the U.S.S.R have them? U.S: Italy and Turkey USSR: Cuba Vietnam War (Week 13, 5/8. “Vietnam War Intro Notes”, Week 14, 5/11: “Vietnam War Stations Activity”) → Understand who was fighting on behalf of North and South AND the roles of both fighting parties supporting the North and South Vietnamese, respectively. The United States fought with South Vietnam, sending several million men to fight. The U.S was much more direct in the conflict, providing materials, strategy, men, and other equipment -The USSR did not send as many troops to fight with North Vietnam, but they did provide military aid (weapons), and military/logistical support → Main goal was to spread communism more in Asia → What was the significance of the Gulf of Tonkin AND the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and how that affected United States involvement in the Vietnam War? The Gulf of Tonkin is in North Vietnam. U.S. destroyers got attacked, allegedly by the North Vietnamese which gave President Johnson the justification to enter the Vietnam War -Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was the response by President Johnson to enter the war without an official declaration of war approved by Congress → This led to the draft of 18-26 year old male citizens → Why was the Tet Offensive significant to the Vietnam War? How did this affect how people in the United States viewed the Vietnam War as a whole? North Vietnamese and Communist “Viet Cong” soldiers attack the South, giving heavy losses to them. Public support is going down significantly in the United States since this was the first televised war, showing the people at home how horrible the truths of war really are and how it is not being won by the U.S like the President is saying → Understand what a PROXY WAR is and the DOMINO THEORY and how it relates to the Cold War relations of the U.S and U.S.S.R. Proxy War is a conflict where a country supports other groups, often people not in the country, to fight a war against a common enemy without directly engaging into the conflict itself → These supported groups (Korea, Vietnam) can recieve military aid, funding, or training → Goal is to exert influence → EXAMPLES: Korea and Vietnam Domino Theory → The theory that if one country falls to communism then a surplus of others will fall to communism. This is a fear of the United States trying to prevent communism from spreading all over the world, putting their global dominance at risk

Notes on Lines, line segments, and rays. Notes on Properties if planes, lines, and points. Notes on Describe intersections in a plane. Notes on Additive property of lengths. Notes on congruent line segments. Notes on Construct a congruent segment. Notes on Distance formula. Notes on Construct the midpoint or perpendicular bisector of a segment. Notes on Midpoint. Notes on angle vocabulary. Notes on Construct an angle bisector. Notes on Construct a congruent angle. Notes on parts of a circle. Notes on arc length. Notes on slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on equations of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on find the distance between a point and a line. Notes on find the distance between two parallel lines. Notes on Construct an equilaterial triangle inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a square inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a equilaterial triangle or regular hexagon. Notes on Construct a square. Notes on translations write the rule. Notes on Reflections graph the image. Notes on Reflections find the coordinates. Notes on rotate polygons about a point. Notes on rotations graph the image. Notes on rotations find the coornates. Make Notes detailed on paper all notes on each topic detailed throughly.Notes on Lines, line segments, and rays. Notes on Properties if planes, lines, and points. Notes on Describe intersections in a plane. Notes on Additive property of lengths. Notes on congruent line segments. Notes on Construct a congruent segment. Notes on Distance formula. Notes on Construct the midpoint or perpendicular bisector of a segment. Notes on Midpoint. Notes on angle vocabulary. Notes on Construct an angle bisector. Notes on Construct a congruent angle. Notes on parts of a circle. Notes on arc length. Notes on slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on equations of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on find the distance between a point and a line. Notes on find the distance between two parallel lines. Notes on Construct an equilaterial triangle inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a square inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a equilaterial triangle or regular hexagon. Notes on Construct a square. Notes on translations write the rule. Notes on Reflections graph the image. Notes on Reflections find the coordinates. Notes on rotate polygons about a point. Notes on rotations graph the image. Notes on rotations find the coornates. Make Notes detailed on paper all notes on each topic detailed throughly.Notes on Lines, line segments, and rays. Notes on Properties if planes, lines, and points. Notes on Describe intersections in a plane. Notes on Additive property of lengths. Notes on congruent line segments. Notes on Construct a congruent segment. Notes on Distance formula. Notes on Construct the midpoint or perpendicular bisector of a segment. Notes on Midpoint. Notes on angle vocabulary. Notes on Construct an angle bisector. Notes on Construct a congruent angle. Notes on parts of a circle. Notes on arc length. Notes on slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on equations of parallel and perpendicular lines. Notes on find the distance between a point and a line. Notes on find the distance between two parallel lines. Notes on Construct an equilaterial triangle inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a square inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle. Notes on Construct a equilaterial triangle or regular hexagon. Notes on Construct a square. Notes on translations write the rule. Notes on Reflections graph the image. Notes on Reflections find the coordinates. Notes on rotate polygons about a point. Notes on rotations graph the image. Notes on rotations find the coornates. Make Notes detailed on paper all notes on each topic detailed throughly

👑 Fiche de Révision : L’Affirmation de l’État (XVIe-XVIIe) ​Problématique : Comment l’autorité royale et l’État se renforcent-ils pour transformer la monarchie en un régime absolu entre le XVIe et le XVIIe siècle ? ​I. Un État qui unifie et contrôle son territoire ​1. L'extension et la fortification ​Agrandissement : Le domaine royal s'étend par mariages (Bretagne en 1532), héritages (Navarre avec Henri IV) et conquêtes militaires (Roussillon, Alsace, Franche-Comté sous Louis XIV). ​La "Ceinture de Fer" : Sébastien Vauban, ingénieur de Louis XIV, sécurise les frontières en construisant ou rénovant 150 forteresses (ex: Besançon, Briançon) capables de résister à l'artillerie moderne. ​2. Modernisation administrative ​Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) : François Ier impose le français (langue du roi) dans tous les actes officiels au détriment des patois. Il crée l'ancêtre de l'état civil en obligeant les curés à tenir des registres de baptêmes, mariages et sépultures. ​Aménagements : L'État maîtrise son territoire par de grands travaux (Canal du Midi par Paul Riquet, assèchement de marais, routes pavées avec relais de poste) et par la cartographie (famille Cassini). ​II. L’instrument de la puissance : Guerre, Impôt et Économie ​1. La révolution militaire ​La guerre est un monopole de l'État. Le roi se met en scène comme un chef victorieux. ​Les effectifs explosent : de 40 000 hommes au XVIe siècle à 450 000 sous Louis XIV. ​L'armée se professionnalise et la conscription (service obligatoire) apparaît via le tirage au sort dans les villages. ​2. Une fiscalité au service de l'État ​Pour financer les guerres, le roi augmente les impôts existants (Taille, Gabelle) et en crée de nouveaux théoriquement payables par tous (Capitation, Vingtième). ​Centralisation financière : Le roi décide seul. Les États généraux (représentants des 3 ordres) ne sont plus convoqués entre 1614 et 1789. ​3. Le Colbertisme (Mercantilisme) ​Jean-Baptiste Colbert, ministre de Louis XIV, transforme l'économie en outil politique : ​Accumulation de richesse : La puissance d'un État dépend de ses réserves d'or et d'argent. ​Manufactures royales : Création d'entreprises d'État (Gobelins pour les tapisseries, Saint-Gobain pour les miroirs) pour produire du luxe en France et éviter les importations. ​Commerce et Marine : Création de Compagnies de commerce (Indes) et construction d'arsenaux (Brest, Toulon) pour dominer les mers. Protectionnisme : Taxes élevées sur les produits étrangers et baisse des taxes pour l'exportation des produits français. ​III. Un pouvoir absolu qui s’impose à tous ​1. La Monarchie de droit divin ​Théorisation : Jean Bodin définit la souveraineté comme indivisible. Bossuet affirme que le roi ne tient son pouvoir que de Dieu : il n'a de comptes à rendre à personne sur terre. ​Le Sacre : À Reims, le roi reçoit les regalia (main de justice, couronne, sceptre). Il est perçu comme un "roi thaumaturge" (guérisseur des écrouelles). ​2. Versailles : Domestiquer la noblesse ​Marqué par la Fronde (révolte des nobles durant sa minorité), Louis XIV installe sa cour à Versailles en 1682. ​Il attire les grands seigneurs à la cour pour les surveiller. La noblesse est soumise à l'étiquette (règles strictes de vie à la cour) et dépend des faveurs du roi (pensions, titres). ​3. L'unification religieuse ​Henri IV : Pacifie le royaume avec l'Édit de Nantes (1598) qui tolère les protestants. ​Louis XIV : Au nom de l'unité ("un roi, une foi, une loi"), il révoque l'édit de Nantes par l'Édit de Fontainebleau (1685). ​Conséquences : Persécutions (dragonnades), révoltes (Camisards) et exil massif de 200 000 protestants (le "Refuge"). ​IV. Les limites à l’absolutisme ​Le pouvoir "absolu" n'est pas une tyrannie totale, il rencontre des limites : ​Lois Fondamentales : Le roi doit respecter des règles coutumières (ex: Loi salique excluant les femmes du trône, inaliénabilité du domaine royal). ​Limites géographiques : L'immensité du royaume et la lenteur des transports freinent l'application immédiate des ordres. ​Résistances : Le droit de remontrance des parlements (critique des lois) et les révoltes populaires contre les impôts (ex: Nu-pieds en 1639). ​Régicides : Les assassinats d'Henri III (1589) et Henri IV (1610) montrent que la personne physique du roi reste vulnérable. ​🏗️ Colbert : L’économie comme arme de puissance ​Jean-Baptiste Colbert, ministre de Louis XIV pendant plus de 20 ans, est l'architecte du mercantilisme à la française, que l'on appelle aussi le colbertisme. Son idée centrale est simple : la puissance d'un roi se mesure à l'or et à l'argent qu'il possède dans ses caisses. Pour enrichir la France, il intervient dans trois domaines clés. ​1. Le développement industriel : Les Manufactures ​Pour éviter que l'argent des Français ne soit dépensé à l'étranger, Colbert décide que la France doit tout produire elle-même, surtout les produits de luxe. Il crée des manufactures royales, comme les Gobelins (tapisseries) ou Saint-Gobain (miroirs et glaces). Ces entreprises reçoivent des aides de l'État et des monopoles de fabrication. L'objectif est de concurrencer les produits anglais ou vénitiens et de faire rayonner le savoir-faire français. ​2. Le commerce maritime et les Compagnies ​Pour Colbert, la France doit dominer le commerce mondial. Il crée des Compagnies de Commerce (comme la Compagnie des Indes) qui ont l'exclusivité des échanges avec les colonies. Pour protéger ces navires de commerce, il développe massivement la Marine de guerre et fonde de grands arsenaux militaires à Brest, Toulon et Rochefort. ​3. Le protectionnisme et les infrastructures ​Pour forcer les Français à acheter local, Colbert met en place des tarifs douaniers très élevés : les produits importés de l'étranger deviennent extrêmement chers. En parallèle, il modernise le pays pour faciliter la circulation des marchandises en faisant construire des routes et des canaux, comme le célèbre Canal du Midi. ​📊 Le bilan de cette politique ​Le bilan de Colbert est contrasté. D'un côté, il a réussi à faire de la France une référence mondiale pour le luxe et a doté le pays d'infrastructures solides. De l'autre, son système a des limites : il a négligé l'agriculture (qui faisait vivre 80% des Français) et les guerres incessantes de Louis XIV ont fini par vider les caisses que Colbert s'efforçait de remplir. ​En résumé pour ton cours : Colbert a transformé l'économie en un outil de service pour l'État. Grâce à lui, l'argent n'est plus seulement une richesse, c'est un moyen de financer la gloire du Roi-Soleil et ses armées. ​👑 Le Pouvoir Royal et l'Absolutisme ​Monarchie absolue : Régime politique dans lequel le roi concentre l'ensemble des pouvoirs (législatif, exécutif, judiciaire) et gouverne presque sans contrôle. ​Monarchie de droit divin : Croyance selon laquelle le roi tient son pouvoir directement de Dieu, ce qui rend son autorité incontestable. ​Souveraineté : Pouvoir suprême de donner et de casser la loi sans le consentement de quiconque (concept théorisé par Jean Bodin). ​Sacre : Cérémonie religieuse (généralement à Reims) par laquelle le roi est oint d'une huile sainte, ce qui lui donne un caractère sacré et légitime son pouvoir. ​Regalia : Ensemble des objets symboliques remis au roi lors de son sacre (couronne, sceptre, main de justice, épée) représentant ses différents pouvoirs. ​Lois fondamentales : Ensemble de coutumes et de règles non écrites que le roi doit respecter (ex : la loi salique qui interdit aux femmes de régner). ​🏛️ L'Administration et le Territoire Centralisation : Processus de renforcement du pouvoir central (le roi) dont les décisions s'appliquent sur tout le territoire, au détriment des pouvoirs locaux. ​Domaine royal : Ensemble des terres relevant directement de l'autorité du roi. ​Intendants : Commissaires nommés par le roi et envoyés dans les provinces (généralités) avec des pouvoirs de justice, police et finance pour faire appliquer la volonté royale. ​Parlement : Cour de justice chargée d'enregistrer les lois royales. Ils disposent d'un droit de remontrance (pouvoir donner leur avis ou critiquer une loi). ​États généraux : Assemblée des trois ordres du royaume (Clergé, Noblesse, Tiers-État) convoquée par le roi pour obtenir des conseils ou voter de nouveaux impôts. ​Ordonnance : Texte de loi royale couvrant plusieurs domaines et s'adressant à l'ensemble des sujets du royaume. ​Édit : Texte de loi royale consacré à un seul domaine ou à un groupe de personnes spécifique (ex : Édit de Nantes). ​💰 Économie et Fiscalité ​Mercantilisme : Doctrine économique qui considère que la puissance d'un État dépend de ses réserves d'or et d'argent. Elle prône l'augmentation des exportations et la réduction des importations. ​Colbertisme : Nom donné à l'application du mercantilisme en France par Colbert, passant par la création de manufactures et de compagnies de commerce. ​Manufacture : Entreprise concentrant un grand nombre de travailleurs, spécialisée dans la production de qualité (souvent luxe) et bénéficiant d'aides ou de monopoles de l'État. ​Protectionnisme : Politique économique visant à protéger la production nationale contre la concurrence étrangère en instaurant des taxes douanières élevées. ​Taille : Principal impôt direct payé au roi, dont la noblesse et le clergé sont exemptés. ​Gabelle : Impôt indirect très impopulaire prélevé sur la consommation du sel. ​🛡️ Guerre et Défense ​Arsenal : Établissement militaire d'État destiné à la construction, l'entretien et l'armement des navires de guerre (ex : Rochefort, Toulon). ​Ceinture de fer : Réseau de forteresses construites par Vauban aux frontières du royaume pour protéger le territoire contre les invasions. ​Corvée royale : Travail obligatoire non rémunéré imposé par le roi à ses sujets (souvent pour l'entretien des routes ou des fortifications). ​🎭 Vie à la Cour et Religion ​Étiquette : Ensemble de règles très strictes qui organisent la vie quotidienne des courtisans autour du roi, créant une hiérarchie et permettant de surveiller la noblesse. ​Thaumaturge : Qualité prêtée au roi de France, censé être capable de guérir des maladies (les écrouelles) par simple toucher

1.1.2 - RISC and CISC / GPU / parallel systems

8.6 Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit

8.4 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

Parallel- und Reihenschaltung von Kondensatoren

resistive inductive series/parallel circuits

Parallèles Ep1 P3 + P4

2. Thread Level Parallelism

1. Instruction Level Parallelism

SAAT Physics 3 Section 5-8 (Static Electricity, Electric Fields, Current, and Series and Parallel Circuits) - تحصيلي

Geometry - Polygons, Parallel lines, Quadrilaterals, Triangles, and Transformation

Multi-core & Parallel Systems

: Systems Engineering – Unit 3 Revision Study Guide Electrical & Energy Systems 1. The Engineering Process & Systems Thinking 1.1 The Engineering Process Stages You must know the sequence and purpose of each stage: 1. Investigate & design 2. Plan 3. Produce a solution 4. Test and diagnose 5. Evaluate and report 6. Modify and improve Once a system is built, the next stage is always “Test and diagnose”. 1.2 IPO Diagrams (Input–Process–Output) Used to analyse and explain systems. Example: Home Security Alarm • Inputs: Motion sensors, door switches, keypad input • Process: Microcontroller compares input to programmed logic • Outputs: Alarm siren, alert light, SMS notification Be ready to label inputs, processes, and outputs clearly. 2. Energy Sources & Sustainability 2.1 Renewable vs Non-Renewable • Renewable: Solar, wind, hydro, tidal, biomass, geothermal • Non-renewable: Coal, oil, gas, nuclear (alternative but not renewable) Geothermal energy comes from heated groundwater. 2.2 Advantages & Disadvantages (Exam Favourite) Wind Power – Advantages • Renewable • Zero greenhouse emissions during operation • Low operating cost • Scalable • Reduces fossil fuel dependence Coal Power – Disadvantages • High CO₂ emissions • Non-renewable • Air pollution • Thermal inefficiency • Environmental damage You will be asked to: • Compare energy sources • Justify one over another • Give an opinion with reasoning 3. Energy Transformations Know energy chains in order: Examples • Wind turbine: Kinetic → Mechanical → Electrical • Hydro power: Potential → Kinetic → Mechanical → Electrical • Solar PV: Radiant → Electrical 4. Efficiency Calculations HIGH PRIORITY 4.1 Formula Efficiency= Useful output energy Total input energy × 100% 4.2 Combined Efficiency Multiply efficiencies as decimals: Example: • Solar panel: 40% → 0.40 • Battery: 80% → 0.80 0.40 × 0.80 = 0.32 = 32% Combined efficiency = 32% 5. Electrical Fundamentals 5.1 Current Types • AC (Alternating Current): Household power, wind turbines • DC (Direct Current): Batteries, solar panels 5.2 Frequency & Period 1 𝑓 = 𝑇 • Australia mains electricity = 50 Hz • Direction changes 50 times per second Example: • Period = 0.005 s 𝑓 = 1 ÷ 0.005 = 200 Hz 6. Power, Work & Energy Calculations 6.1 Power 𝑊 𝑃 = or𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑡 Example: • 1,000,000 J in 50 s 𝑃 = 1,000,000 ÷ 50 = 20,000 W 6.2 Work 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 Example: • 2000 N × 10 m = 20,000 J 7. Batteries & Electrical Storage 7.1 Series vs Parallel • Series: Voltage adds • Parallel: Capacity (Ah) adds Example: • 4 × 12 V batteries in series = 48 V 7.2 Battery Runtime Total energy Time (h)= Power of load 8. Circuit Theory 8.1 Ohm’s Law 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 8.2 Resistance • Series: 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 • Parallel: 1 1 1 = + 𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 8.3 Capacitors • Series: inverse rule • Parallel: add values directly 9. Electrical Components & Symbols You must identify: • Resistor • Variable resistor (potentiometer) • Capacitor • Cell / Battery • LDR (light-dependent resistor) • LED • Diode • Thermistor • Switch types: SPST, SPDT, DPDT LED does not detect light LDR, phototransistor do 10. Transformers Formula 𝑉 𝑠 𝑁 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑝 𝑁 𝑝 Example: • 40 primary, 800 secondary • Input = 240 V 𝑉 𝑠 = 240 × (800 ÷ 40) = 4800𝑉 Used to step up voltage → reduce current → reduce power loss 11. Power Transmission Why Voltage Is Stepped-Up • Reduces current • Minimises power loss as heat • Improves efficiency • Allows thinner cables • Enables long-distance transmission 12. Power Electronics Rectifier • Converts AC to DC H-Bridge + PWM • Technique: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) • Purpose: Convert DC into simulated AC & control motor speed 13. Semiconductors • Doping: Adding impurities to silicon • Creates diodes and transistors • Enables controlled current flow 14. Safety & Standards Before using 230 V power tools: Must have a current electrical safety tag 15