Results for "ENaC"

NEUS 609 - The Gustatory System

3.2 Enactment of Legislation & Powers of Congress

Native Americans Organized by tribe. Geography influences culture for various groups. Northwest Coast Pacific ocean, whales, totem poles, log homes. Southwest Desert and canyons, cliff homes. Great Plains Buffalo, teepee homes made of animal hide. Eastern Woodland Long houses or other wood homes, Iroquois nation, 5 civilized tribes. Farmed the Three Sisters - beans, corn and squash. Animism Religious belief that there are spirits in inanimate objects (mountains, rivers, animals). Columbian Exchange Transfer of biological material (animals, plants and disease) between the New World and Europe during the age of exploration. Jamestown Settled by businessmen from England who sought to make money by growing and selling tobacco. Massachusetts Bay Settled by Puritans from England who were seeking religious freedom for themselves. New England Colonies Influenced by good harbors, abundant forests, rocky soil, and a short growing season. Middle Colonies Culturally diverse, bread-basket because of grain farming. Southern Colonies Provided agricultural products that were processed in the North and in Europe. Triangular Trade Led directly to the increased importation of enslaved Africans to the Western Hemisphere. Middle Passage The journey of slaves from Africa to the new world. British Mercantilism Economic policy used by the British in which the American Colonies served as a source of raw materials and a market to sell goods. French and Indian War Caused by disputed land claims in the Ohio River valley between the French and the British. Virginia House of Burgesses Early colonial efforts in self-government contributing to the development of representative democracy. Mayflower Compact Early colonial efforts in self-government contributing to the development of representative democracy. Town Hall Meetings Early colonial efforts in self-government contributing to the development of representative democracy. Albany Plan of Union Early attempt to unify American colonies but under British rule. Declaration of Independence States the colonial grievances against British rule and was written by Thomas Jefferson. John Locke's theory of natural rights Power to govern belongs to the people ('consent of the governed'). Bill of Rights Both documents support limitations on governmental power and stress the importance of individual liberty. NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION Many colonists believed they could not be taxed by the British because they had no representatives in the British government, which means that the British did not have the consent of the governed. Thomas Paine Published Common Sense which was influential in persuading American colonists to support colonial independence from Britain. Convinced many Americans who had been undecided about declaring independence from Britain. Response to Mercantilist Policies Committees of Correspondence/Non-importation Agreements/Boston Tea Party First Continental Congress. Sugar and Stamp Acts Tax foreign molasses and printed material. Quartering Act Requires colonists to house and feed British soldiers. Townshend Acts Taxes imported goods and tea. Boston Massacre Five people killed by British soldiers. Revolutionary War Begins shortly after the signing of the Declaration of Independence. American Colonies Win the war and independence with the help of familiar land and foreign aid from France. Mississippi River Became the western boundary of the U.S. at the end of the Revolutionary War. Articles of Confederation First form of government used by the U.S. after independence from Britain. The first plan of union for the original 13 states. Decentralized Political System Power is broken up and divided among many groups, not unified. Problems and Weaknesses of Articles Largely unsuccessful at solving many major problems because most powers remained with the state governments. Congress Depended on the states for men and money to support an army. The federal government could not enforce its laws. States' Powers Had the power to collect taxes, coin money, and control trade. Success of the Articles Provided a system for governing the Western territories and a process for admitting new states to the union. Constitutional Convention (1787) Major American delegates meet in Philadelphia to correct the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Shays' Rebellion (1786) Significant because it convinced many Americans of the need for a stronger national government. Exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Bicameral Legislature Created a legislature with two houses that write and vote on laws. Three-Fifths Compromise Determined that 3/5 of the slave population would be counted for representation in the House. U.S. Constitution A statement of rules and procedures for governing the U.S. Sovereignty Derived from the consent of the governed (only the citizens give the government the power to rule). Democracy A government for the people by the people. A democracy must have citizen participation in government. Democratic Government A government characterized by a free and open election process. Republican Government A government in which representatives are elected by the people. Division of Power The concept included in the Constitution to prevent unlimited government power through federalism, checks & balances, and separation of powers. Federalism The division of powers between the national and state government. Legislative Branch The branch of government that includes Congress (House of Representatives and Senate) which proposes, writes, votes on laws, and approves treaties. Executive Branch The branch of government that includes the President of the U.S. and his cabinet. Judicial Branch The branch of government that includes federal courts and the Supreme Court. Marbury v. Madison A landmark case that established judicial review and strengthened the Judiciary branch of the U.S. Checks & Balances A system where each branch of government checks the others to ensure no one branch has too much power. Impeachment The process by which the President can be removed from office by trial conducted by Congress. Veto The power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress. Override of Veto The process by which Congress can pass a bill despite a presidential veto, requiring a two-thirds vote of both houses. Elastic Clause A clause that allows Congress to pass laws necessary and proper to fulfill its duties, broadening its power. Judicial Review The power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional. Electoral College The body that elects the President of the U.S. based on electoral votes from each state, not a popular vote. George Washington The first President of the U.S. who set precedents for future presidents and issued the Proclamation of Neutrality. Whiskey Rebellion A rebellion in western Pennsylvania against a new excise tax, which Washington suppressed using state militia. Farewell Address A speech by Washington urging the U.S. to avoid European conflicts and alliances. Louisiana Purchase (1803) The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory by Thomas Jefferson, which contradicted his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Mississippi River Control The goal of the Louisiana Purchase to secure U.S. control of the Mississippi River for trade. Ohio River Valley The region whose farmers gained the greatest economic benefit from the Louisiana Purchase. Westward Expansion The focus of the U.S. following the Louisiana Purchase, promoting settlement and development of western territories. Articles of Confederation The first constitution of the United States, which established a weak federal government. Washington's Precedents The traditions and practices established by George Washington during his presidency. Constitutional Convention The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where the U.S. Constitution was created. Shays Rebellion An armed uprising in 1786-1787 by farmers in Massachusetts protesting economic injustices. US Constitution The supreme law of the United States, establishing the framework of government. Great Compromise The agreement that established a bicameral legislature in the U.S. Congress; Settled a dispute over state representation in national Congress. ⅗ compromise The agreement that slaves would count as three-fifths of a person for representation purposes. Commerce Compromise The agreement that allowed Congress to regulate commerce but prohibited export taxes. Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that guarantee individual liberties. Federalists/Antifederalists Federalists supported the Constitution; Antifederalists opposed it, fearing too much central power. 3 branches of government The division of government into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Checks and Balances A system that ensures no one branch of government becomes too powerful. Louisiana Purchase The 1803 acquisition of territory from France that doubled the size of the United States. Loose/strict constructionists Loose constructionists interpret the Constitution broadly; strict constructionists interpret it narrowly. Indian Removal The policy of relocating Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River. Civilization The process of assimilating Native Americans into American culture. Trail of Tears The forced relocation of Native Americans from their homelands, resulting in thousands of deaths. Worcester v. Georgia A Supreme Court case that ruled in favor of Native Americans but was not enforced by Jackson. Andrew Jackson The seventh President of the United States known for his populist policies and Indian removal. Manifest Destiny The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the North American continent. Cotton Gin A machine that quickly and efficiently removes seeds from cotton fibers. Missouri Compromise An agreement passed in 1820 that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state. Compromise of 1850 A package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress to defuse a political confrontation between slave and free states. Abolitionists Individuals who advocated for the immediate end of slavery in the United States. Kansas Nebraska Act A law that allowed voters in Kansas and Nebraska to choose whether to allow slavery, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise. Dred Scott v Sanford An 1857 Supreme Court case that ruled that African Americans could not be American citizens and that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territories. Bleeding Kansas A series of violent political confrontations in the United States involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery elements in Kansas. Uncle Tom's Cabin An anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe published in 1852 that depicted the harsh realities of slavery. Underground Railroad A network of secret routes and safe houses used by enslaved African Americans to escape to free states and Canada. Horace Mann An American educational reformer who promoted public education and is known as the 'Father of the American Public School System.' Seneca Falls Convention The first women's rights convention held in 1848, which launched the women's suffrage movement in the United States. 2nd Great Awakening A Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States that emphasized individual piety and a personal relationship with God. Temperance A social movement against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Civil War A conflict from 1861 to 1865 between the Northern states (Union) and Southern states (Confederate States) over issues including states' rights and slavery. Abraham Lincoln The 16th President of the United States who led the country during the Civil War and worked to end slavery. Emancipation Proclamation An executive order issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1862 that declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory. Reasons for North (Union) Victory The North was better prepared economically, had more human resources, and superior war material. Reconstruction Era The period following the Civil War during which the Southern states were reorganized and reintegrated into the Union. Lincoln's Plan for Reconstruction Aimed to restore Southern representation in Congress and offered amnesty to Confederates who swore allegiance to the U.S. Radical Republicans A faction of the Republican Party that sought to impose harsh penalties on the Southern states and promote civil rights for freed slaves. Andrew Johnson The 17th President of the United States who succeeded Abraham Lincoln and oversaw the early years of Reconstruction. Reconstruction A policy supported by Lincoln to allow Southern States to reenter the nation as quickly as possible. Radical Republicans Members of Congress who disagreed with Johnson about how to handle Reconstruction, leading to Johnson's impeachment. Impeachment of Johnson Johnson was impeached for firing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton without Senate approval, but the impeachment failed. 13th Amendment Law that formally abolished slavery in the U.S. in 1865. 14th Amendment Law that officially gave citizenship to African Americans and legally protected them under the Bill of Rights and U.S. Constitution. 15th Amendment Law that granted African Americans voting rights. Poll Taxes Fees collected by Southern States to restrict African Americans from exercising their voting rights. Literacy Tests Requirements imposed by Southern States to limit African Americans' voting rights. Jim Crow Laws Laws enacted in the 1870s and 1880s to restrict the freedoms of African Americans after the Civil War. Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court case in 1896 that upheld Jim Crow Laws based on 'separate but equal' public facilities for African Americans. Black Codes Laws aimed at restricting the rights of former slaves and limiting the effectiveness of the 14th and 15th amendments. Ku Klux Klan Group that attempted to restrict the rights of former slaves. Sharecropping System of farming in Southern States after the Civil War that kept former slaves economically dependent on farms. New South Term describing changes in the Southern economy, including industrial development and agricultural diversification. Sectionalism The division between the North and South that contributed to tensions leading up to the Civil War. Gilded Age Period marked by economic growth and industrialization in the U.S. Industrial Revolution Causes Factors such as capital, labor supply, Erie Canal, and transcontinental railroads that contributed to industrial growth. Mechanization of Agriculture The use of machines in farming that led to an increase in production. Effects of Industrial Revolution Challenges for smaller industries, development of monopolies, widening economic gap, and increased immigration. Social Darwinism Theory which believed that the growth of large business at the expense of others was merely survival of the fittest (the stronger businesses will succeed and the weaker one will fail). Laissez-faire Capitalism Economic policy which argues that government should limit any interference in the economy (the government should leave the economy alone). Rise of Big Business (1865-1900) Federal Government followed laissez-faire economic policy. Trusts and monopolies were created by entrepreneurs to maintain control of the market. Robber Baron Term used during the Gilded Age to characterize leaders of big business who used ruthless tactics when dealing with competitors. Gilded Age Mark Twain labeled the late 1800's ________ to describe the extremes of wealth and poverty (big differences between the rich and the poor). Urbanization Rural (countryside) residents move to urban (inner city) areas in search of jobs. Size of cities increase. How the Other Half Lives Book by Jacob Riis that exposed the living conditions of urban slums (working-class, inner-city neighborhoods). Working Conditions Rapid industrial growth leads to shift from rural to urban lifestyle, widespread use of child labor, and growth of tenements & slums. Immigration Many immigrants traveling to the U.S. settled in urban areas in the North because rapid industrialization created many job opportunities. New Immigrants Came primarily from southern and eastern Europe (Ex: Italy & Russia) between 1890-1915. Were culturally different from the earlier immigrants. Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Limited the number of Chinese immigrants entering the U.S. An example of Nativism. Nativists Group of Americans who were angry about Immigrants taking jobs from Americans and working for cheaper wages. Trust Titans Business leaders who controlled large monopolies and trusts. Philanthropy The desire to promote the welfare of others, expressed especially by the donation of money to good causes. Gospel of Wealth Philosophy that wealthy individuals have a responsibility to use their wealth for the greater good of society. Industrial Revolution Period of major industrialization that took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Monopolies/trusts Entities that dominate a market and restrict competition. Gentlemen's Agreement Informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan that restricted Japanese immigration. America Expands Between the 1890's and the start of World War I (1914), the U.S. expanded its access to overseas markets and raw materials through the policy of imperialism. Reasons for Imperialism Due to the expansion of American industry during the 1800's, the U.S. needed to obtain raw materials and new markets. Dollar Diplomacy Attempted to increase the U.S. power in Latin America, indicating a U.S. desire to interact with foreign countries in ways that were profitable to U.S. corporations. Economic Nationalism U.S. practices economic nationalism by implementing protective tariffs to help American industry. Protective Tariff A tax on foreign products making them more expensive so people will buy American products instead. Open Door Policy (1899-1900) Issued in order to secure equal trade opportunities in China and guarantee access to its markets. Annexation of Hawaii U.S. annexes (takes over) Hawaii and the Philippines. Spanish American War A conflict in 1898 that resulted in the U.S. obtaining overseas colonies and being recognized as a world power. Yellow Journalism Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst used yellow journalism to generate public support for the Spanish American War. Panama Canal Built as a result of the Spanish American War to allow quicker movement between oceans for trade and military security. Progressive Movement A movement to correct the economic and social abuses of industrial society, supporting consumer protection, women's suffrage, and other reforms. Progressives Believed the government needs to regulate big business to protect consumers and workers, opposing the Laissez-faire attitude. Jane Adams A prominent social reformer and activist during progressive era, who established settlement houses that provided assistance to the poor. W.E.B. Du Bois Formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to end segregation and win equal rights. Booker T. Washington Believed that African Americans should pursue education as the key to improving social status and founded a vocational training institution. Labor Union An organization of employees formed to bargain with the employer for better working conditions, benefits, and pay. Clayton Antitrust Act Made unions legal, allowing them to organize and improve conditions. Collective Bargaining Discussions between labor union leaders and management to agree on a contract for workers. Wagner Act (1935) Legalized collective bargaining. Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire A tragedy where many women workers were killed in a factory fire, drawing national attention to worker safety. Samuel Gompers The person who founded the AFL; Organized workers into unions to strive for better conditions and pay. American Federation of Labor The first long-lasting, successful labor union in the U.S., focusing on the rights of skilled workers. Pure Food & Drug Act (1906) Law that provided federal inspection of meat products and forbade unsafe food products and poisonous medicines. Meat Inspection Act Created sanitary standards established for slaughterhouses and meat processing plants. Muckraker Writers during the progressive era that exposed social ills of inner cities, factory conditions, and political corruption. The Jungle A publication by Upton Sinclair that led Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act. Upton Sinclair An author known for his muckraking work, particularly The Jungle. Ida M Tarbell A muckraker who focused on issues including the monopoly of Standard Oil. Lincoln Steffens A muckraker who exposed political corruption in cities. Jacob Riis A muckraker known for his work How the Other Half Lives. Booker T Washington An African American educator and leader who advocated for vocational training. WEB Dubois An African American sociologist and civil rights activist who co-founded the NAACP. Nativism A political policy favoring the interests of established inhabitants over those of immigrants. Labor Unions Organizations formed by workers to advocate for better working conditions and wages. Collective bargaining The negotiation process between employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching agreements. Triangle Shirtwaist Fire A tragic industrial disaster that highlighted the need for better workplace safety regulations. AFL The American Federation of Labor, a national federation of labor unions in the United States. Plessy v Fergusun A landmark Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine. Woodrow Wilson The 28th President of the United States who led the nation during World War I. Neutrality A policy of not taking sides in a conflict, adopted by Wilson at the beginning of World War I. Unrestricted submarine warfare A type of naval warfare in which submarines sink vessels without warning. Espionage Act A law enacted in 1917 to prohibit interference with military operations or support for U.S. enemies. Sedition Act A law that made it a crime to criticize the government during World War I. Schenck v. U.S. A Supreme Court case that ruled that freedom of speech could be limited during wartime. Fourteen Points A statement of principles proposed by President Wilson to govern the postwar world. League of Nations An international organization established after World War I to promote peace and cooperation. Isolationism A foreign policy of avoiding involvement in international conflicts, followed by the U.S. in the 1920s and 30s. Treaty of Versailles Congress refuses to sign the Treaty of Versailles because many Senators objected to the U.S. membership in the League of Nations, fearing that it would pull the U.S. into another major war. Washington Naval Conferences Attempts by the U.S. to achieve peace and arms control in the decade after WWI. Kellog-Briand Pact Attempts by the U.S. to achieve peace and arms control in the decade after WWI. Bolshevik Revolution Communist takeover of Russia in 1917 increased nativism leading to the Red Scare (fear of Communism in the U.S. following WWI). Immigration quota acts of 1921 & 1924 Restricted the number of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe due to a recurrence of nativist attitudes following WWI. 19th Amendment Women were granted the right to vote during the Progressive Era (1917). Women's suffrage The national effort to ratify women's suffrage was strengthened by the economic opportunities created by World War I. Major female leaders of the women's rights movement Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucretia Mott. Roaring Twenties The 1920's are called the 'Roaring Twenties' because of widespread social and economic change and changing cultural values. Prohibition Law authorized by the 18th Amendment that banned the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. Sacco and Vanzetti Two immigrant anarchists who were convicted of murder and executed with very little evidence during the height of the Red Scare. Scopes Trial John Scopes was convicted in 1925 for teaching about evolution, illustrating a conflict concerning religious beliefs and scientific theories. Harlem Renaissance African American authors and artists used literature and art to celebrate the richness of their heritage. Flappers Women during the 1920's that rejected traditional feminine roles and refused to conform to society's expectations. Henry Ford Use of the assembly line in the production of automobiles led directly to a decrease in the cost of automobiles. Economic growth during the 1920's Development of many new consumer goods led to rapid economic growth. Automobiles, radio, and motion pictures Standardized American culture and influenced what people considered to be 'American culture'. Red Scare A period of intense fear of Communism in the U.S. following WWI. Cultural conflict in the 1920s Illustrated by the Scopes Trial and the Harlem Renaissance, reflecting tensions between traditional values and modern ideas. Consumer Culture Emergence of a culture where buying is encouraged by advertising and installment payments. Installment Buying Paying for something a little at a time rather than all at once. Stock Speculation Heavy increases in stock investments driven by a belief in never-ending prosperity. Government's Role in the Economy (1920s) Prevailing view that the government should interfere as little as possible. Warren G. Harding President who called for 'a return to normalcy' and advocated for reduced international involvement and less government regulation of business. Calvin Coolidge President who believed the economy functions best if government allows business to operate freely. Overproduction of Farm Crops Demand for American farm goods dropped dramatically during the 1920s due to decreased European need for imports. Dust Bowl Environmental disaster caused by over-farming and severe drought, leading to increased westward migration. Stock Market Crash of 1929 Considered the start of the Great Depression, largely caused by speculators buying stocks on margin. Decline in Farm Prosperity A significant decrease in the economic well-being of farmers during the Great Depression. Overproduction and Underconsumption Situation where U.S. businesses produced more products than the population could buy, leading to low consumer demand. Global Financial Interdependence Evidence that economies worldwide are interconnected; if one falls, they all fall. Herbert Hoover President of the U.S. at the start of the Great Depression, whose policies favored big business. Hoovervilles Nickname for poor communities due to Hoover's refusal to provide direct federal aid to the homeless. Bonus Army WWI veterans who marched on Washington demanding payment for their services. Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) President who won an easy victory over Hoover in 1932, advocating for government intervention in economic problems. Court Packing FDR's proposal to increase the size of the Supreme Court to make it favorable to New Deal laws. Deficit Spending Used by FDR to stimulate economic growth. FDR Reelected to 3rd Term Controversial event in 1940 as it challenged the tradition of presidents stepping down after two terms. FDR's reelection to 3rd term Eventually led to the establishment of presidential term limits. New Deal Most immediate goal was to provide work for the unemployed. Public works jobs Tried to stimulate economic recovery by creating public works jobs. Social welfare programs Were expanded during the New Deal. Government involvement Increased government involvement with both business and labor. Agricultural Adjustment Acts Designed to increase prices of farm products by reducing farm output. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Created in 1933 to improve economic conditions in a poor rural region. Social Security Act 1935 Considered an important program because it extended support to elderly/retired citizens. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) Tried to restore public confidence in banks by safeguarding savings. Bank holiday (1933) Declared to restore confidence in the nation's banks. WPA Intended to help unemployed workers. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Intended to help unemployed workers. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) Strengthened labor unions by legalizing collective bargaining. Opposition to New Deal The strongest opposition came from business leaders. Laissez-Faire The tradition that government shouldn't interfere with the economy. Critics of the New Deal Claimed the TVA and Social Security System threatened the U.S. economy by applying socialist principles. Impact of New Deal Raised national debt and expanded the power of the Federal Government. Political thinking change Supported the idea that the government should become more involved in the social and economic life of the people. WWII start Started when Germany invaded Poland in 1939. U.S. Neutrality In the 1930's, the primary objective was to avoid involvement in Asian and European conflicts. Neutrality Acts Passed in mid 1930's to avoid mistakes that led to WWI. Lend-Lease Act Efforts to help the Allies without formally declaring war. Bombing of Pearl Harbor Brought the U.S. directly into World War II. Totalitarian aggression The U.S. became involved to fight totalitarian aggression from Germany, Italy, and Japan. D-Day Invasion June 1944- Important to the outcome of WWII because it opened a new Allied front in Europe (Germany had to fight enemies from the East and West instead of just the East). Key challenge faced by the U.S. during WWII Fighting the war on several fronts (Europe and Asia). U.S. and Soviet Union cooperation during WWII Supports the idea that alliances are built upon mutual self-interest (the U.S. and Soviet Union were enemies but formed an alliance because they were both enemies with Germany). 1944 election of FDR Can be attributed to the unwillingness of voters to change leadership during a major crisis. FDR's personal diplomacy during WWII Strengthened the President's role in shaping U.S. foreign policy. Women in wartime industries Women replaced men in essential wartime industries. Economic opportunities for women during WWII Expanded for women. Post-war job situation for women Many working women left their factory jobs because they were forced to give up their jobs to returning war veterans. Migration of African Americans during WWII More African Americans migrated to large cities because industry was expanding. GI Bill (1944) Extended educational and housing opportunities to war veterans. Provided federal funds for veterans to attend college. Rationing during WWII Ordered by the U.S. government to conserve raw materials for the war effort. Funding WWII The U.S. government relied heavily on the sale of war bonds (lends from citizens to help fund the war. Also contributed to the national debt). Economic impact of WWII on the U.S. Accelerated its recovery from the Great Depression. Korematsu v. U.S. The U.S. government considered Japanese Americans a threat to national security during WWII, causing them to place Japanese Americans in confinement in internment camps. Supreme Court ruling on Japanese internment Said that the removal of Japanese Americans from their homes was constitutional because this type of action was necessary during a national emergency. Wartime conditions and civil liberties Supreme Court ruled that wartime conditions justified limitations being placed on civil liberties. Impact of WWII on Japanese Americans Many Japanese lost their homes and businesses. President Harry Truman's decision on atomic bombs Decided to drop atomic bombs on Japan (Hiroshima & Nagasaki). Truman's use of atomic weapons Decided to use atomic weapons against Japan in order to end the war while limiting the loss of American lives. Truman's impact on civil rights Advanced the cause of civil rights for African Americans by ordering the desegregation of the Armed Forces (Black and White troops fight together and are no longer separated). Truman Doctrine Originally designed to contain communism by giving aid to Greece and Turkey (later expanded by Eisenhower). Truman and General MacArthur Relieved General Douglas MacArthur of his command in the Korean conflict because General MacArthur challenged the concept of civilian control over the military. Loyalty checks during Truman's presidency Required loyalty checks due to the fear of communist influence in government. Nuremberg Trials Held to make German leaders accountable for the Holocaust (mass genocide against Jews and other minorities). Established the principle that leaders of a nation may be held accountable (put on trial) for crimes against humanity/ war crimes. United Nations Replaced the League of Nations in order to prevent international disputes from escalating into major wars. Marshall Plan (1948-1952) U.S. provided economic aid in order to help Europe's economic recovery after WWII. U.S. foreign policy after WWII Changed as the U.S. became more involved in world affairs. Eleanor Roosevelt's contribution Helped create the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Post-WWII economic growth In the decade after WWII, rapid growth in personal income contributed to the expansion of the middle class. Appeasement A diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding conflict by making concessions to an aggressor. African Americans in WW2 Refers to the contributions and experiences of African Americans during World War II. Rosie the Riveter A cultural icon representing women who worked in factories and shipyards during World War II; used as a poster in order to recruit women Japanese Internment The forced relocation and incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II. Rationing The controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services during wartime. Pearl Harbor The site of the surprise military attack by the Japanese on December 7, 1941, leading the U.S. to enter WWII. War Bonds Debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations during times of war. Manhattan Project A secret U.S. project during World War II that developed the first nuclear weapons. Desegregation of the Military The process of eliminating racial segregation within the United States Armed Forces. United Nations (UN) An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries. Selective Service The system by which men are registered for military conscription in the United States. Lend Lease A U.S. program during WWII that supplied Allied nations with vast amounts of war material. NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 for mutual defense against aggression. Cold War An era of political tension and military rivalry between the U.S. and Soviet Union from 1946 to 1989. Baby Boom A significant increase in the birth rate following WWII, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s. Iron Curtain The boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas of political influence during the Cold War. Sputnik Launch The 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union, marking the start of the space race. Containment A U.S. policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism during the Cold War. Berlin Airlift The U.S. operation to supply West Berlin after the Soviet blockade in 1948-1949. McCarthy Era A period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the U.S. during the early 1950s. Senator Joseph McCarthy A U.S. senator known for leading the anti-communist witch hunts during the McCarthy Era. McCarthyism The practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper evidence. Korean War A conflict from 1950 to 1953 between Communist North Korea and South Korea, supported by the U.S. and UN. United Nations military force First time the United Nations used military force to oppose aggression. General Douglas MacArthur Relieved of command in the Korean War for threatening civilian control of the military. Presidential wartime powers Expanded during the Korean War. Outcome of the Korean War Korea continued to be a divided nation. Vietnam War Civil war between Communist North Vietnam and U.S.-backed South Vietnam. Domino Theory Idea that if one country falls to communism, others around it will as well. Vietnam War protests Significant protests in the U.S. including Berkeley demonstrations and Kent State protest. 26th Amendment Lowered the voting age to 18 as a result of U.S. participation in the Vietnam War. War Powers Act 1973 Limited the president's ability to send troops into combat abroad. Public opinion on foreign policy Showed that foreign policy can be altered by public opinion. Trust in government Greater public distrust of governmental policies post-Vietnam War. Military technology and victory U.S. experience in the Vietnam War showed that superior military technology does not guarantee victory. Peace Corps Established by President John F. Kennedy to support developing nations. Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961 Kennedy's effort to remove Fidel Castro from power in Cuba, considered his most significant foreign policy failure. Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 Soviet Union placed nuclear weapons in Cuba; Kennedy imposed a naval blockade. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Negotiated by Kennedy to limit nuclear testing following the Cuban Missile Crisis. New Frontier Kennedy's program that expanded the U.S. space program. Détente Policy to ease tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union. Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) Part of the presidential policy of détente aimed at reducing world tensions. Nixon's visit to China 1972 Attempt to reduce tensions between the U.S. and Communist China. Watergate Scandal Break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters leading to Nixon's resignation. Trust in elected officials Undermined as a lasting effect of the Watergate scandal. Executive privilege Weakened as a result of the Watergate scandal. Nixon (1974) Supreme Court case that directly limited the president's power of executive. Civil Rights Movement Movement to end segregation based on race during the 1960's. Civil Disobedience Nonviolent attempts to oppose segregation, such as lunch counter sit-ins and freedom riders. Jackie Robinson Broke color barrier in Major League Baseball. President Truman's Executive Order Desegregated armed forces. NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, focused on higher education, full political participation, and continued support for civil rights. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Required the integration (desegregation) of all public schools in the U.S. and overturned Plessy v. Ferguson ruling. Eisenhower's Federal Troops Sent into Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 to enforce a Supreme Court decision to desegregate public schools. Martin Luther King Jr. Leader of the civil rights movement during the 1960's, advocated for nonviolent protest. Malcolm X Civil rights leader during 1950's and 60's that advocated black separatism. Rosa Parks Practiced civil disobedience by refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama. Civil Rights Act 1964 Passed to correct racial and gender discrimination and ended Jim Crow laws. Voting Rights Act 1965 Removed the literacy test as a voting qualification to eliminate racial barriers within voting. Affirmative Action Programs Main goal is to promote economic gains for minorities and women. Fair Housing Act Government efforts to end discrimination against various groups. Americans with Disabilities Act Government efforts to end discrimination against individuals with disabilities. Chief Justice Earl Warren Followed a policy of judicial activism and expanded individual rights in criminal cases. Supply-Side Economics Lowered tax rates on personal and business income and supported economic changes favoring big business. Trickle Down Economics Believed that economic growth depends on making increased amounts of capital available to business. National Debt in the 1980s Increased greatly due to the Federal Government's reliance on deficit spending. Reagan's Federal Budget Proposals Came under criticism for including very large deficits. Involvement in World Affairs in the 1980s Based on a concern for advancing the nation's self-interest. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Increased commerce and eliminated tariffs. Encouraged countries to participate in the global economy. Reflected the U.S. commitment to globalization. Persian Gulf War A direct result was that the U.S. liberated Kuwait from Iraqi control. Election of 2000 George Bush won even though Al Gore received more popular votes, because of the way the Electoral College votes came out. USA Patriot Act Increased government surveillance of citizens, increased cooperation between law enforcement and intelligence. War on Terror War in Afghanistan against Taliban and Al Qaeda. War in Iraq Saddam Hussein accused of having WMD's and wouldn't allow inspection. Barrack Obama First African-American elected to the Presidency. Obamacare Passed major health insurance reform package. September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks Attacks on World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Rise of the Tea Party Extreme right wing conservatives opposed to most government spending. Supply-side economics Economic theory that advocates reducing taxes and decreasing regulation to stimulate economic growth. George Bush Committed U.S. troops to the Persian Gulf War to assure the flow of Middle East oil to the U.S. and its allies. Bill Clinton Supported NAFTA because it would stimulate economic growth in the U.S. U.S. troops in Haiti and Bosnia Sent during the 1990's to stop conflicts within those nations. Bombing of Kosovo Participated in 1999 because of human rights violations. Economic stimulus package Passed by Barrack Obama to prop up the economy. Withdrawal of American troops Began from Iraq and Afghanistan under Barrack Obama. Mission to find Osama bin Laden Ordered by Barrack Obama that resulted in the killing of Al Qaeda leader.

Enacted Law: Constitutions, Statutes, and Regulations (Vocabulary)

Enac anglais

ENaC and Blood Pressure Regulation

ENaC and Blood Pressure – Experimental Evidence Review

Examples of Major Toxic Chemical Laws in the United States by Responsible Agency and Year of Initial Enactment

n Mar. 30, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued its judgment on the merits in Certain Iranian Assets, nearly seven years after the case between Iran and the United States was first filed. The Court found that a number of U.S. actions constituted violations of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and the United States, but that the 2018 termination of the Treaty meant that the Court could only award monetary damages and could not order cessation of the United States’ activities.ccccc In a complex opinion touching on issues ranging from “unclean hands” to expropriation, the Court determined that it could not order the United States to unfreeze nearly $1.75 billion in Iranian central bank assets but obligated the United States to compensate Iranian companies for its sanctions and seizure of other assets. Both the United States and Iran were quick to frame the decision as a victory. The United States issued a statement calling the Court’s judgment a “major victory for the United States and victims of Iran’s State-sponsored terrorism.” Meanwhile, Iran’s Foreign Ministry said that the ICJ’s ruling proved Iran’s “righteousness and the violations by the US government.” Factual Background and Iran’s Claims Iran brought this case against the United States in 2016 claiming that the United States had violated both the 1955 Treaty of Amity between the two countries and international law norms on State immunity by permitting private litigants to proceed in suits against Iran and attaching seized Iranian assets to satisfy judgments against Iran obtained in those actions. Iran’s claims are rooted in several legislative and executive acts taken by the United States. These measures culminated in a number of default and substantial damages judgments entered by U.S. courts against Iran and Iranian State-owned entities. In 1996, the United States amended the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) to remove immunity for States designated as “State sponsors of terrorism.” The FSIA’s terrorism exception prompted many plaintiffs to commence proceedings against Iran, which the United States designated as a “State sponsor of terrorism” in 1984, for damages caused by acts allegedly supported by Iran. The Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA), enacted in 2002, permitted enforcement measures for judgements entered pursuant to the 1996 amendment to the FSIA. Importantly, Section 201 of TRIA provides that in these cases, the assets of an entity designated as a “terrorist party” shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution. As a result of President Barack Obama’s Executive Order 13599, the United States blocked all assets of the Iranian government, including those of the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) and of other financial institutions, within U.S. jurisdiction. The United States then adopted the Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (ITRSHRA), subjecting Bank Markazi’s assets to execution to satisfy default judgments against Iran. Bank Markazi challenged ITRSHRA in Bank Markazi v. Peterson, but the Supreme Court upheld the use of nearly $1.75 billion in Central Bank of Iran assets to satisfy judgments in favor of terrorism victims under the FSIA’s terrorism exception. As a result of these executive, legislative, and judicial acts of the United States, Iran initiated proceedings before the ICJ and argued that Iran and its entities were suffering serious and ongoing harm in violation of the Treaty of Amity. Jurisdiction and Admissibility 2019 Judgment on Preliminary Objections Prior to the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court in its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections rejected the United States’ claims that it did not consent to the ICJ’s jurisdiction under the Treaty’s dispute resolution clause which conferred the Court jurisdiction over disputes arising from the Treaty. In addition to objecting the Court’s jurisdiction over the dispute, the United States filed preliminary objections to the admissibility of the case on several grounds including that Iran’s claims were beyond the scope of the Treaty and Iran’s invocation of ICJ jurisdiction, given its history of supporting international terrorism, amounted to an abuse of process. The Court unanimously dismissed United States’ admissibility objections to Iran’s claims. However, the Court determined that it lacked jurisdiction over claims that the United States violated Iran’s sovereign immunity. It also determined that a third objection on jurisdiction, over claims regarding Bank Markazi, was not of a preliminary character and saved a full decision on that objection for full development of the factual record. Jurisdiction over the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) In the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court returned to the outstanding jurisdictional question and determined that it lacked jurisdiction over Iran’s claims relating to alleged U.S. violations of the Treaty of Amity in relation to Bank Markazi. The Treaty grants benefits only to “nationals” (natural persons) and “companies.” The United States successfully argued that Bank Markazi was not a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, and therefore, Iran’s central bank was not protected by the Treaty. This jurisdictional determination was particularly significant because it covered assets of nearly $1.75 billion dollars, representing most of Iran’s overall monetary claims. In reaching its decision, the Court paid particular attention to the “nature” of Bank Markazi’s activities, rather than its legal personality separate from the Government of Iran. Iran contended that Bank Markazi’s investment of dematerialized bonds issued on the U.S. financial market and subsequent management of proceeds from those 22 securities qualified it as a “company” under the Treaty. The ICJ was unconvinced and ruled that the bank did not engage in a sufficient level of activities of a commercial character to be characterized as a “company” entitled to the Treaty’s protections. The Court ruled that Bank Markazi’s operations in the United States are “part of the usual activity of a central bank and inseparable from its sovereign function.” Failure to Exhaust Local Remedies The Court rejected the United States’ objection to admissibility based on Iran’s failure to exhaust local remedies. Under customary international law, a State that initiates an international claim on behalf of its nationals based on diplomatic protection must exhaust local remedies before the claim can be heard. This requirement is also considered satisfied when there are no local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable opportunity to obtain redress. In this case, the Court remarked that each time an Iranian entity sought to have federal statutory provisions set aside by U.S. courts because they were inconsistent with rights provided by the Treaty of Amity, the U.S. court routinely applied the federal law due to it being enacted after the Treaty. Because of this, the Court concluded that the Iranian entities “had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings” and rejected the United States’ challenge to admissibility based on a failure to exhaust local remedies. United States’ Defenses on the Merits The ICJ rejected three separate defenses invoked by the United States. First, it rejected the United States’ contention that Iran had committed an abuse of right by applying the Treaty of Amity to measures it considered to be unrelated to commerce. The Court next dismissed the United States’ defense that its Executive Order 13599, blocking the property of the Iranian government and related financial entities, fell into two carve outs of the Treaty: measures that regulate the production of or traffic in arms and measures that are necessary for a contracting party’s essential security interests. The Court disagreed that the Executive Order fell into either of these two exceptions. It found that the measures in the Executive Order only had an indirect impact on the production of and the traffic in arms by Iran. Additionally, the Court ruled that the Executive Order was not necessary to protect the United States’ essential security interests, noting that the justifications set out in the Executive Order itself were primarily financial rather than security considerations. Finally, the United States asked the Court to dismiss all claims brought by Iran under the Treaty of Amity on the grounds that Iran came to the Court with “unclean hands.” The Court noted it had never upheld that “clean hands” constitutes custom or general principle of law, and that it considers the doctrine with caution. The International Law Commission (ILC) in its Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts also declined to consider “unclean hands” as grounds for a preclusion of wrongfulness, noting it has “been invoked principally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international courts and tribunals, though rarely applied.” Despite its hesitancy to apply the doctrine, the Court stated that even if it were to apply “clean hands” to the case, a nexus between the wrongful conduct imputed to Iran and its claims under the Treaty of Amity would be needed. The Court determined this necessary nexus was missing and rejected the United States’ “unclean hands” defense. Having rejected these defenses, the Court then turned to the merits of Iran’s specific claims. Alleged Violations of the Treaty of Amity Art. III, para. 1 and Art. IV, para. 1 Iran and the United States disagreed on the meaning of Art. III, para. 1, of the Treaty, which provided for Iranian and American companies to “have their juridical status recognized” within the territory of each contracting party. In its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections, the ICJ understood “juridical status” as a company’s own legal personality, sometimes existing as an entity distinct from its associated State. Article IV, para. 1, provides for fair and equitable treatment and prohibits the United States and Iran from taking “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” against each other’s nationals or companies. Iran contended that the United States disregarded the legal personality of Iranian companies within its territory and that the U.S. measures under Section 201(a) of TRIA, Section 1610(g) of the FSIA, and Executive Order 13599 were unreasonable. The Court noted that a measure is unreasonable under the Treaty of Amity when it does not pursue a legitimate public purpose, there is no appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and measure adopted, or it is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose. Although the U.S. measures at issue might have pursued a legitimate public purpose of providing effective remedies to plaintiffs awarded damages and the attachment and execution of a liable defendant’s assets is generally an appropriate relationship with that purpose, the Court found the legislative measures to be manifestly excessive. It noted that TRIA and the FSIA employed very broad terms, capable of encompassing any legal entity regardless of the degree or type of control exercised over them by Iran. The Court ruled that the United States unjustly “lifted the corporate veil,” disregarding the separate legal personality of Iranian companies in liability judgments rendered in cases where the companies could not participate and in relation to underlying facts the companies seemed to be uninvolved in. Additionally, the Court found Executive Order 13599 to be manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose of responding to Iran’s “sustained support of terrorist acts” because it applied in an overinclusive manner to “any Iranian financial institution.” Art. III, para. 2 On Iran’s claim that the United States violated the Treaty’s guarantee of “freedom of access to the courts” and “prompt and impartial justice,” the Court found no violation committed by the United States. Although the application of law by U.S. courts was unfavorable to the Iranian companies, the ICJ noted that the rights of Iranians companies to appear before U.S. court, make legal submissions, and lodge appeals were unimpeded. Art. IV, para. 2 By seizing and attaching the assets of Iranian companies, the Court found that the United States had committed an expropriation contrary to Article IV of the Treaty. The Court only found a violation here with respect to the United States’ measures taken under TRIA and the FSIA, but not those enacted by Executive Order 13599. The Court noted that a judicial decision attaching and executing property or interests in property does not per se constitute a taking or expropriation of that property. Instead, an element of illegality is required. After examining the various legislative, executive, and judicial acts taken by the United States and at issue in this case, the Court relied on its prior finding of unreasonableness to establish that the U.S. measures had not been a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to an expropriation without compensation. However, the Court dismissed Iran’s takings claims directed at Executive Order 13599 because Iran failed to identify affected property of Iranian companies specifically impacted by the executive order beyond Bank Markazi. Because the Court denied jurisdiction over claims related to Bank Markazi, the Court did not find the United States to have committed an unlawful expropriation with Executive Order 13599. On Iran’s claims that the United States failed to afford the most constant protection and security to Iranian companies as provided by Article IV, the Court stated that the United States’ obligation under the Treaty was to protect Iranian companies’ property from actual physical harm. During the proceedings, Iran asserted that the Treaty’s obligation extended beyond protection from physical harm to legal protection of property. The Court refused to extend the protection from physical harm afforded by Article IV, para. 2, to legal harm because of the overlap with the fair and equitable treatment provision in Article IV, para. 1, that would result from accepting Iran’s interpretation. Because the Court already determined that the U.S. measures violated fair and equitable treatment under Article IV, para. 1, it rejected Iran’s claims under Article IV, para. 2. The Court reasoned that paragraph 2 of Article IV was not intended to apply to situations covered by paragraph 1 of that article. Article V, para. 1 The ICJ ruled that the United States did not deprive Iranian companies the right to dispose of their property. Iran’s allegations were predicated on the same set of facts claimed in relation to Article IV, para. 2. The Court understood measures that amount to unlawful expropriation to fall outside the scope of Article V, para. 1. Because the United States’ measures were already deemed to amount to expropriation, the Court concluded that Iran had not established a violation by the United States of the right to dispose of property. Article VII, para. 1 Under the Treaty, the United States did not improperly apply restrictions on the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds. The Court rejected Iran’s interpretation of this provision as imposing a blanket prohibition on any restriction on the movement of capital. Instead, the Court understood the provision to reflect Iran and the United States’ intent to regulate exchange restrictions to preserve bilateral commerce. As Iran did not allege the United States of applying exchange restrictions, the Court dismissed Iran’s claims. Article X, para. 1 Finally, the Court found that the United States had violated its obligations to provide “freedom of commerce” for the Iranian companies. In the Court’s view, “commerce” applies to ancillary activities related to traditional forms of commerce, such as trade in goods. As a result, the Court understood financial transactions, such as trade in intangible assets, to be commerce protected by Article X of the Treaty. To find a breach under this article, the Court was convinced that the United States’ measures were actual impediments to commerce. Because it comprehensively blocked property, Executive Order 13599 qualified as an actual impediment to any financial transaction conducted by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in the United States. Additionally, the attachment and execution of assets of Iranian State-owned companies under the FSIA was also considered to be an actual impediment to the performance of commercial activities by those entities. Finally, the application of both the FSIA and TRIA by U.S. courts was also considered to be a material interference with Iranian commerce within the United States. Remedies Iran requested that the ICJ, having identified certain violations of the Treaty, order the United States to cease conduct that violated its Treaty obligations. However, the Court, citing the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, noted that it could order a cessation of internationally wrongful acts “only if the violated obligation is still in force.” In 2018, the United States had terminated the Treaty by giving Iran advance notice of its withdrawal, and so the Court determined that the relevant obligations were no longer in force and it could not grant Iran’s request for an order of cessation. Finally, on the question of compensation for injury suffered, the Court recognized that the United States is obligated to compensate Iran for the violations it committed. If Iran and the United States are unable to come to an agreement on the amount within two years, the Court will determine the amount due in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. Conclusion Institutionally, a judgment leaving both parties claiming victory is an objectively positive outcome for the ICJ. However, it is unlikely that we have seen the last of this case. Leaving the two countries to reach an agreeable amount of compensation on their own might not inspire confidence given the looming presence of the challenging dynamics between the two countries. The largest share of assets claimed back by Iran were those associated with the Central Bank of Iran. This close to $1.75 billion dollars in assets tied to Iran’s central bank towers over the rest of assets involved in Iran’s successful allegations against the United States. Financially, the United States is off the hook for a significant amount of the assets in dispute. However, unfreezing millions of dollars in assets for Iranian use remains politically sensitive for the United States as Iran advances its nuclear program and faces international criticism for its harsh response to domestic protests sparked late last year. On the other hand, for a country that has sought to convey the wrongfulness of the United States’ sanctions regime against it, Iran was handed a political victory with an international court ruling that some of the United States’ measures were unlawful. The messaging games between the two countries will only continue with the ICJ’s opinion in this case.

● Unique Corporate Culture: Zappos integrates happiness and motivation into its core principles, providing exceptional benefits and maintaining a flat organizational structure to enhance employee motivation and satisfaction. Motivational Strategies: The company emphasizes personal connections in customer interactions, offers substantial training with an option to quit, and focuses on creating a fulfilling work environment, reflecting a deep commitment to employee happiness and motivation. —--------------------------------------- Overview of Early Motivation Studies: ● Early motivation studies focused on understanding how individual needs drive employees to demonstrate goal-oriented behavior in order to satisfy these needs. For instance, an employee seeking companionship might frequently engage in conversations around the office to fulfill this need. Key Theories of Motivation: 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: ○ Developed by Abraham Maslow, this theory posits that human needs are organized hierarchically from the most basic to higher-level needs. ○ Levels of Needs: ■ Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs like food and water. ■ Safety Needs: Protection from danger and stability. ■ Social Needs: Desire for relationships and belonging. ■ Esteem Needs: Need for respect, recognition, and self-esteem. ■ Self-Actualization: The pursuit of realizing one’s full potential and engaging in activities that lead to growth and fulfillment. ○ Maslow’s theory suggests that once a lower-level need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator, and the individual moves to satisfy higher-level needs. 2. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer): ○ This theory modifies Maslow’s hierarchy by categorizing needs into three groups: ■ Existence Needs: Corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. ■ Relatedness Needs: Links to social needs. ■ Growth Needs: Encompasses esteem and self-actualization needs. ○ ERG theory does not maintain a strict hierarchy and acknowledges that multiple needs can be motivational at the same time. It introduces the concept of “frustration-regression, ” where individuals revert to satisfying lower-level needs if they cannot satisfy higher-level ones. 3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: ○ Frederick Herzberg identified two sets of factors that impact motivation: ■ Hygiene Factors: Elements like company policies, salary, and working conditions, which can cause dissatisfaction if not addressed. ■ Motivators: Factors intrinsic to the job such as achievement, recognition, and growth opportunities, which truly motivate employees to perform better. ○ Herzberg argued that improving hygiene factors alone does not increase job satisfaction; instead, motivators are crucial for enhancing employee motivation. 4. McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory: ○ David McClelland proposed that individuals develop certain needs based on their life experiences, which are: ■ Need for Achievement: Desire to excel and achieve in relation to a set of standards. ■ Need for Affiliation: Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. ■ Need for Power: Desire to make an impact, influence others, and have authority. ○ The dominant need influences an individual’s behavior at work and their suitability for certain roles. For example, high achievement needs are effective in roles with clear performance metrics, while high affiliation needs are beneficial in cooperative roles. Applications and Implications: ● ● Understanding these needs and theories helps managers create work environments that satisfy employee needs, thus motivating them effectively. The theories emphasize the importance of recognizing the diversity of employee needs and tailoring motivational approaches accordingly. Critiques and Limitations: ● ● While these theories have been influential, they also face criticisms such as the rigidity of need hierarchy (Maslow) and the oversimplification of motivational factors (Herzberg). Despite criticisms, these theories provide valuable frameworks for understanding employee motivation and designing effective management practices. Here’s a detailed summary of the process-based theories of motivation, as outlined in your text: Overview of Process-Based Theories of Motivation: ● Process-based theories view motivation as a rational process where individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react accordingly. This perspective focuses on understanding the cognitive processes that underpin motivated behavior. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965): ● ● ● ● ● Core Concept: People are motivated by fairness, which they assess through social comparisons of input-outcome ratios with others (referents). Inputs and Outcomes: Inputs are contributions (e.g., effort, skill), while outcomes are what people receive in return (e.g., pay, recognition). Perceptions of Equity: Fairness is perceived when one’s ratio of input to outcome matches that of their referent. Responses to Inequity: Responses can include altering perceptions, changing the input level, adjusting outcomes, or even leaving the situation. Overpayment and Underpayment: Reactions differ based on whether individuals feel over-rewarded or under-rewarded, influencing their motivation and actions. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964; Porter & Lawler, 1968): ● ● Core Concept: Motivation is determined by an individual’s rational calculation of expectancy (effort will lead to performance), instrumentality (performance will lead to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes). Application: This theory is useful for understanding how beliefs about the relationships between effort, performance, and rewards motivate people to act in certain ways. Reinforcement Theory: ● ● ● Core Concept: Behavior is shaped by its consequences, either reinforcing desired behaviors or discouraging undesired ones. Types of Reinforcement: ○ Positive Reinforcement: Increases desirable behavior by offering positive outcomes. ○ Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing negative conditions. ○ Punishment: Decreases undesired behavior through negative consequences. ○ Extinction: Reduces behavior by removing rewards. Reinforcement Schedules: Different schedules (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio) affect the durability and quality of behavior changes. Procedural and Interactional Justice: ● Beyond distributive justice (fairness of outcomes), procedural (fairness of processes used to determine outcomes) and interactional justice (treatment of individuals in the enactment of procedures) are crucial in shaping perceptions of fairness and, consequently, motivation. OB Toolbox for Fairness: ● Recommendations include recognizing diverse contributions, ensuring fairness in decision-making, treating people with respect, and maintaining transparency in rules and decisions. Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod): ● A systematic application of reinforcement theory in organizations to modify employee behaviors. It involves identifying behaviors, measuring baseline levels, analyzing antecedents and consequences, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes. Key Success Factors: 1. 2. 3. Employee Empowerment: Employees at Nucor are treated as company owners, empowered to make decisions and take actions that affect their work and the company’s operations directly. Decentralized Structure: Authority and responsibility are pushed down to lower levels, allowing line workers to undertake tasks typically reserved for management. Innovative Reward System: Nucor’s compensation strategy includes high base wages, significant annual bonuses, and profit sharing, with a strong link to company and individual performance. Modern Approaches to Job Design: ● ● ● Job Rotation: This involves periodically shifting employees to different tasks to alleviate monotony and enhance skills. Job Enlargement: Expands job tasks to add variety and increase employee engagement and satisfaction. Job Enrichment: Provides more autonomy over how tasks are performed, increasing responsibility and potentially improving job satisfaction and productivity. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1975): Identifies five core job dimensions that impact three critical psychological states, influencing job outcomes: 1. Skill Variety 2. Task Identity 3. Task Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback These dimensions contribute to feelings of meaningfulness, responsibility, and understanding of results, leading to high internal work motivation, job satisfaction, and reduced absenteeism. Empowerment: ● Extends the concept of autonomy by removing barriers that limit the potential of ● ● employees. Structurally empowered employees, who are provided with information, resources, and support to make decisions, tend to have higher job satisfaction and performance. Effective empowerment also requires a supportive management and organizational culture that genuinely delegates decision-making power to employees. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Goal Setting Goal-Setting Theory: Goal-setting is a powerful method of motivation, supported by extensive research showing that effectively set goals can enhance employee performance significantly. This approach has been broadly adopted across various sectors, including major corporations globally. SMART Goals: Effective goals are SMART—Specific, Measurable, Aggressive, Realistic, and Time-bound: ● ● ● Specific and Measurable: Goals should be clear and quantifiable to ensure performance can be evaluated accurately. Aggressive: Goals should be challenging to stimulate higher performance. Realistic: While goals should be ambitious, they must also be achievable to maintain motivation. ● Time-Bound: A clear timeline increases urgency and helps focus efforts. Why SMART Goals Motivate: Goals clarify the direction and energize employees towards achieving specific outcomes. They also encourage innovative thinking to meet challenging targets and create a sense of accomplishment upon achieving these goals. Conditions for Effective Goals: ● ● ● Feedback: Regular feedback helps align employee's efforts with their goals. Ability: Employees need the requisite skills and knowledge to achieve their goals. Goal Commitment: Commitment to goals is crucial for their effectiveness, which can be enhanced by involving employees in the goal-setting process and ensuring the goals align with their values and capabilities. Potential Downsides of Goal Setting: ● ● Goals can reduce adaptability to changing circumstances if too rigid. Overemphasis on specific goals can lead to neglect of other important duties or unethical behavior to achieve targets. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Appraisals Overview: Performance appraisals are a formal process used by organizations to assess and provide feedback on employee performance. These appraisals are crucial for employee motivation, informing decisions on rewards, promotions, and terminations. Key Features of Effective Appraisals: Effective appraisals are characterized by: ● ● ● Adequate Notice: Employees are informed about the criteria ahead of time. Fair Hearing: Appraisals include two-way communication. Evidence-Based Judgment: Decisions are based on documented performance evidence. When properly managed, performance appraisals are valuable tools for motivating employees, enhancing their development, and aligning their goals with organizational objectives. Effective appraisals require clear criteria, fair processes, and regular feedback to truly benefit both employees and the organization. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Incentives Incentive Systems Overview: Incentive systems link employee pay to performance, either on an individual or company-wide basis. Common in many organizations, these systems are designed to implement motivation theories practically, aiming to boost productivity, profits, and employee commitment through various forms of financial rewards. Types of Incentives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Piece Rate Systems: Compensation is based on the quantity of output produced. Effective in environments where output is easily measurable. Individual Bonuses: One-time rewards for achieving specific goals, enhancing motivation by providing clear, achievable targets. Merit Pay: Ongoing pay raises based on past performance, typically determined through performance appraisals. Can lead to a sense of entitlement if not carefully managed. Sales Commissions: Compensation linked to the volume or profitability of sales. Needs careful structuring to align with company goals and encourage desirable behaviors. Team Bonuses: Rewards based on team performance, suitable in environments where teamwork and collective performance are critical. Gainsharing: Rewards employees for performance improvements over previous periods, typically through cost savings or efficiency gains, fostering a culture of continuous improvement. Profit Sharing: Distributes a portion of company profits among employees, fostering loyalty and a sense of ownership among staff. Stock Options: Provides employees the option to buy company stock at a future date at a predetermined price, aligning employee interests with those of the company. Effectiveness and Challenges: While financial incentives can be powerful motivators, they also have potential downsides such as promoting risk-averse behavior and diminishing creativity. Incentives may also lead employees to focus narrowly on rewarded behaviors, potentially at the expense of other important duties or organizational citizenship behaviors. Key Considerations for Effective Incentives: ● ● ● Incentives should be clearly aligned with organizational goals and strategies. The structure of incentives should balance between encouraging desired behaviors and allowing flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances. Companies should be aware of the potential for incentives to encourage unethical behavior or excessive risk-taking. Conclusion: Properly designed and implemented, performance incentives can significantly enhance motivation and performance. However, they require careful management to ensure they support broader organizational objectives and promote a healthy, collaborative, and innovative work culture. Overview of Trait Approaches: Early leadership studies focused on identifying traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders, exploring various personality characteristics and physical attributes. Although initially deemed inconclusive, modern research, particularly with the advent of the Big Five personality framework, has successfully linked certain traits with leadership capabilities. Key Leadership Traits: 1. Intelligence: Both general mental ability (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) are associated with leadership emergence and effectiveness. EQ's role becomes critical in managing oneself and interpersonal relationships effectively. 2. Big Five Personality Traits: ○ Extraversion: Strongly correlated with leadership emergence and effectiveness; extraverts' sociability and assertiveness make them visible leader candidates. ○ Conscientiousness: Organized and persistent traits contribute to leadership emergence and effectiveness. ○ Openness to Experience: Creativity and openness to new experiences are linked to innovative leadership. 3. Self-Esteem: High self-esteem enhances an individual's self-confidence and leadership perception. 4. Integrity: Honesty and moral integrity are crucial for leaders to maintain trustworthiness and ethical standards. Limitations of Trait Approaches: Trait approaches initially failed to consider situational contexts which can significantly influence leadership effectiveness. The recognition of this limitation led to a more nuanced understanding that the effectiveness of certain traits may depend heavily on specific organizational contexts or scenarios. Application in Modern Leadership: Understanding the impact of these traits helps in selecting and developing effective leaders. It’s recognized that the relevance of specific traits can vary, depending on the organizational context and the specific demands of the leadership role. Conclusion: Trait theories have evolved to highlight the importance of both identifying essential leadership traits and understanding the situational factors that influence the effectiveness of these traits in various leadership contexts. This dual focus aids in the more targeted development and placement of leaders within organizations. Leader Decision Making: Leaders use various decision-making styles, which include: 1. 2. Authoritarian: The leader makes decisions unilaterally. Democratic: Employees participate in the decision-making process. 3. Laissez-Faire: The leader provides minimal guidance and allows employees to make decisions independently. The effectiveness of these styles varies based on the organizational context and the specific situation, with democratic styles generally increasing employee satisfaction but not necessarily impacting productivity significantly. Laissez-faire leadership is often negatively associated with employee satisfaction and effectiveness. Leadership Assumptions about Human Nature: Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y outline two opposing perceptions of employee motivation: ● Theory X: Assumes employees are inherently lazy and require strict supervision and ● control. Theory Y: Views employees as self-motivated and responsive to tasks that are satisfying and fulfilling. Leaders' assumptions about human nature can influence their management style, with Theory Y leaders tending to be more supportive and empowering. Limitations of Behavioral Approaches: Behavioral approaches to leadership are criticized for their failure to consider the context in which leadership occurs. What works in one organizational setting might not work in another, indicating the necessity for leaders to adapt their behaviors to the specific demands and culture of their organization. Key Takeaway: Behavioral approaches highlight the importance of leaders’ actions and their decision-making styles in influencing their effectiveness and the satisfaction of their teams. These approaches also underscore the need for adaptability in leadership practices, reflecting the varying needs of different organizational environments. ● ● ● ● ● Contingency Leadership Context: Leadership effectiveness varies with the situation; no single style is universally effective. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory: Categorizes leaders as task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Effectiveness depends on the match between a leader's style and situational favorableness, influenced by leader-member relations, task structure, and leader's power. Situational Leadership Theory (SLT): Proposes adjusting leadership style based on follower readiness, combining directive and supportive behaviors to meet follower development needs. Path-Goal Theory: Based on expectancy theory of motivation, leaders facilitate employee paths to goals by adjusting their behaviors (directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented) to fit employee and task characteristics. Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Decision Model: Guides leaders on the level of employee involvement in decision-making based on several situational variables, offering a range from autocratic to delegative styles. ● Overall Insight: Contingency theories emphasize adapting leadership styles to the context, follower characteristics, and specific organizational circumstances for optimal leadership effectiveness. Here’s a summarized version in bullet points: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders align employee goals with their own, focusing on the company's well-being. ○ Transactional leaders manage through clear structures and rewards for performance. Tools of Transformational Leaders: ○ Charisma: Inspire and garner admiration from followers. ○ Inspirational Motivation: Provide a compelling vision of the future. ○ Intellectual Stimulation: Encourage innovation and creativity. ○ Individualized Consideration: Offer personal attention and mentorship. Transactional Leadership Methods: ○ Contingent Rewards: Provide tangible rewards for tasks completed. ○ Active Management by Exception: Proactively prevent problems. ○ Passive Management by Exception: Intervene only when standards are not met. Effectiveness: ○ Transformational leadership is often more effective, enhancing motivation, performance, and satisfaction. ○ Transactional styles also show effectiveness, particularly when excluding passive management by exception. Trust and Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders are likely to be trusted more because they show concern for followers and communicate values effectively. Can Charisma Be Trained?: ○ Charisma isn't solely innate; it can be developed despite being somewhat influenced by personality traits like extraversion and neuroticism. Dark Side of Charisma: ○ Charisma can lead to blind allegiance, potentially harming organizations if not accompanied by other solid leadership qualities. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: ○ Focuses on the type of relationship leaders form with individual members. ○ High-quality LMX relationships result in mutual trust, respect, and obligation. ○ Benefits include greater job satisfaction, performance, and organizational commitment. Developing High-Quality LMX: ○ Leaders can foster high-quality exchanges by being fair, dignified, and trusting. ○ Employees can enhance relationships through seeking feedback, being open to learning, and showing initiative. These points outline the core elements of contemporary approaches to leadership, emphasizing the situational effectiveness of different leadership styles and the importance of leader-member relationships. Week 5: Motivation Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. What is Motivation? ○ Definition: A set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an individual, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence. 2. Components of Motivation: ○ Direction: Focuses on the goals towards which effort is directed. ○ Intensity: Measures how hard a person tries. ○ Persistence: Examines how long a person can maintain effort. 3. Theoretical Perspectives in Studying Motivation: ○ Need Theories: What motivates people through understanding their needs. ○ Process Theories: How motivation occurs through interactions within the environment. 4. Need Theories: ○ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization. ○ Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Simplifies Maslow’s into three core needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. ○ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Distinguishes between Motivators (satisfaction) and Hygiene factors (dissatisfaction). ○ McClelland’s Theory of Social Motives: Focuses on Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. 5. Process Theories: ○ Behavioral Theories: Emphasizes the role of reinforcement. ○ Cognitive Choice Theories: Centers on decision-making processes like Expectancy Theory. ○ Self-Regulation Theories: Includes Goal Setting Theory advocating for SMART goals. Need Theories: ● ● Understand the basic needs outlined in Maslow’s Hierarchy (from physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top) and how each level motivates behavior. Recognize that only unsatisfied needs motivate. Alderfer’s ERG Theory condenses Maslow’s into three groups: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth, which can be pursued simultaneously and can regress based on frustration. ● ● Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory differentiates between Hygiene factors (which prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate) and Motivators (which truly drive employees to perform better). McClelland’s Theory focuses on the needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power. Unlike Maslow’s, these needs are not in any order and can vary in intensity between individuals. Process Theories: ● Expectancy Theory: Effort leads to performance (Expectancy), performance leads to outcomes (Instrumentality), and outcomes are valued (Valence). Understanding the connections between these elements helps predict employee motivation to engage in a behavior. Goal Setting Theory: ● Goals must be SMART—specific enough to clarify what is expected, measurable to gauge progress, achievable yet challenging, relevant to the individual’s role, and time-bound with a deadline. Goals effectively direct attention, mobilize effort, enhance persistence, and promote the development of strategies and action plans. Week 6: Leadership Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. Introduction to Leadership: ○ Definition: The process of influencing others towards the achievement of goals. 2. Theoretical Perspectives on Leadership: ○ Trait Approach: Identifies personality traits that distinguish leaders. ○ Behavioral Approach: Observes behaviors that are effective for leadership. 3. Contingency Theories: ○ Fiedler’s Contingency Model: Matches leader’s style with the situation to optimize effectiveness. ○ House’s Path-Goal Theory: Adjusts leadership behavior to employee and environmental needs. 4. Contemporary Approaches to Leadership: ○ Transformational Leadership: Focuses on visionary, inspiring, and change-inducing behaviors. ○ Transactional Leadership: Relies on exchanges and rewards to influence employee behaviors. 5. Charismatic and Servant Leadership: ○ ○ Charismatic Leadership: Relies on the leader’s magnetic personality to influence and inspire followers. Servant Leadership: Prioritizes the needs of others and aims to serve rather than lead in the traditional sense. Info for Quiz Preparation: ● ● ● ● Motivation Lecture: Understand the specific components of each theory, particularly how they explain the direction, intensity, and persistence of motivation. Leadership Lecture: Be able to distinguish between different leadership styles and theories, especially noting how transformational leaders differ from transactional ones and the specific conditions under which each leadership style might be most effective according to contingency theories. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: Focus on how expectancy (effort leads to performance), instrumentality (performance leads to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes) interact to motivate behavior. Goal Setting Theory: Understand how setting SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) goals can directly influence motivation and performance, supporting with examples if possible. These notes are organized to aid in understanding complex psychological theories by breaking them down into their core components, crucial for preparing for quizzes that may test comprehension and application of these concepts. ● ● ● Differences between Transformational and Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational Leaders: Inspire and motivate employees to exceed normal levels of performance through charismatic leadership styles, visionary, and stimulating approaches. They focus on changing existing perceptions and motivating followers to put group or organizational interests first. ○ Transactional Leaders: Focus on maintaining the normal flow of operations using a system of rewards and penalties. They are practical and traditional, ensuring that staff follow procedures and perform their designated tasks. ○ Effective Conditions: Transformational leadership is effective in dynamic and competitive environments that require innovation and change. Transactional leadership works well in stable environments where tasks are routine, and the primary goal is efficiency. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: ○ Dive deeper into how employees weigh the perceived costs and benefits of making an effort. An employee's motivation to perform is increased if they believe that their effort will lead to good performance (Expectancy), that good performance will be rewarded (Instrumentality), and that they will find the reward satisfactory (Valence). Goal Setting Theory: ● ● ○ Specific goals increase performance; difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals; feedback enhances the effect of specific and difficult goals. This is because specific and challenging goals focus attention and foster a persistent effort, leading to the development of effective strategies. Additional Insights For Expectancy Theory, prepare to apply scenarios where employees might perceive high or low expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, and predict their motivation outcomes

The American Sleep Disorders Association, in 1990, initiated a 5 year process to develop the widely used International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD). The original ICSD listed 84 sleep disorders, each with descriptive details and specific diagnostic, severity, and duration criteria. The ICSD had 4 major categories: (1) dyssomnias, (2) parasomnias, (3) disorders associated with medical or psychiatric disorders, (4) "proposed" sleep disorders. The ICSD has since been revised twice. The second edition, ICSD-2 was released in 2005 which contains a list of 77 sleep disorders. That new list was broken down into 8 sub-categories: (1) Insomnia; (2) Sleep-related breathing disorder; (3) Hypersomnia not due to a sleep related breathing disorder; (4) Circadian rhythm sleep disorder; (5) Parasomnia; (6) Sleep-related movement disorder; (7) Isolated Symptoms, apparently normal variants, and unresolved issues; and (8) Other sleep disorders. A third edition of the ICSD was released in 2014. The major clinical divisions were unchanged in the third edition from the 2nd version, but there was an addition of variations in the diagnostic criteria for pediatric patients with obstructive sleep apnea, and there was a heading of Developmental Issues added to each section of disorders that have developmentally-specific clinical features in order to aid physicians in diagnosing those patients (specifically 9-CM and 10 CM). Sleep Disorders Categories The ICSD-3 lists about 77 sleep disorders which are divided into the following categories: Insomnia Sleep-related breathing disorder Central Disorders of Hypersomnolence Circadian rhythm sleep disorder Parasomnias Sleep-related movement disorder Some of the above categories have a section for isolated Symptoms, apparently normal variants, and unresolved issues Other sleep disorders There are some other sleep disorders that are divided into two appendices of the ICSD-2 manual. They are as follows: Sleep Related Medical and Neurological Disorders; and ICD-10-CM Coding for Substance-induced Sleep Disorders Study the disorders listed under each of the above categories until you have a good idea of what is included in each. There is a complete list of all the current classified sleep disorders in chapter 27, beginning on page 476 of your Sleep Disorders Medicine, 4th edition textbook. Insomnias Insomnias are disorders that usually produce complaints of not enough sleep, poor quality of sleep. Patient perception can play a role in the complaints. Occasionally, a patient may perceive that they are getting poor quality or not enough sleep even though they may be getting what we think is a normal night’s rest. Insomnias are defined by a repeated difficulty initiating sleep, not sleeping long enough, or poor quality sleep regardless of the amount of sleep time. Primary insomnia would not be due to another sleep disorder. If another sleep disorder such as OSA is causing the insomnia, then we call that secondary insomnia. These disorders may require medical treatment if they are long-lasting. Temporary insomnia due to a stressful situation or life event may correct itself with time. The types of insomnia are covered on pages 476 and 480 of your textbook. Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders These are disorders that involve disordered respiration, or breathing during sleep. These may be obstructive or not. There can be various causes of both. Central apnea syndromes include Cheyenne-Stokes breathing pattern and high-altitude periodic breathing. Cheyenne-Stokes is usually associated with either congestive heart failure or a traumatic brain injury which would actually be called secondary Central Sleep Apnea because it is secondary to another problem. It can also occur due to extreme old age, or a “worn-out” heart (a pacemaker may be needed for this type of patient). You will see patients like this occasionally. Primary Central Sleep Apnea has no apparent cause but still results in an irregular breathing pattern. These patients are not necessarily good candidates for CPAP because their breathing problem may not involve an obstruction. If not, you will likely see an increase in the number or length of central apneas after placing them on CPAP. There are newer PAP technologies that have been developed in recent years that do have some effect on the regulation of these types of patients’ breathing pattern but may show limited success in extending life expectancy. The obstructive type of breathing disorders, on the other hand, do respond well to treatment. These will likely make up the vast majority of patients that you will encounter in the sleep laboratory. Refer to pages 476 and 481 for more detailed examples of these disorders. Central Disorders of Hypersomnolence If you break down the word “hypersomnia” into its root terms as you did in medical terminology, it should be apparent that these disorders involve excessive sleepiness. However, the excessive sleepiness cannot be the result of another class of disorder. If a patient has another such disorder, that disorder must be effectively treated before a diagnosis of hypersomnia not due to a sleep-related breathing disorder can be made. These patients may have nights of uninterrupted sleep, but they still have unintended or unwanted lapses into sleep during the day. There can be many different causes of this; some of which are very interesting. Narcolepsy and Kleine-Levin Syndrome fall into this category along with some neurologic or psychiatric disorders. Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder Circadian rhythm sleep disorders are sleep disorders related to the internal clock of the human body resulting in an irregular sleep-wake cycle. Patients with these sleep disorders have circadian rhythms that make it difficult for them to function in society. The three extrinsic circadian rhythm sleep disorders are the time zone change syndrome, shift work sleep disorder, and irregular sleep-wake pattern (secondary circadian rhythm disorders). Three intrinsic circadian rhythm sleep disorders are delayed sleep phase syndrome, advanced sleep phase syndrome, and non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder (primary circadian rhythm disorders). For Circadian Rhythm disorders, refer to page 482 of your textbook. Time Zone Change Syndrome (Jet Lag Syndrome): Jet lag is experienced as a result of eastward or westward jet travel, after crossing several time zones, disrupting synchronization between the body's inner clock and its external cues. Symptoms do not occur after north-south travel. jet lag symptoms consist of difficulty in maintaining sleep, frequent arousals, and excessive daytime somnolence. Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome: The ICSD-2 defines delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) as a condition in which a patient's major sleep episode is delayed in relation to a desired clock time. This delay causes symptoms of sleep-onset insomnia or difficulty awakening at the desired time. Typically, patients go to sleep late (between 2:00 am and 6:00 am) and awaken during late morning or afternoon hours (between 10:00 am and 2:00 pm). Patients cannot function normally in society due to disturbed sleep schedules. Patients may try hypnotic medications or alcohol in attempts to initiate sleep sooner. DSPS patients may be treated by the use of chronotherapy (intentionally delays sleep onset by 2-3 hours on successive days until the desired bedtime has been achieved) or phototherapy (exposure to bright light on awakening). Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome: Advanced sleep phase syndrome is characterized by patients going to sleep in the early evening and wake up earlier than desired in the morning (2:00 am-4:00 am). Because the patients have early morning awakenings, they experience sleep disruption and daytime sleepiness if they don't go to sleep at early hours. ASPS is most commonly seen in elderly individuals. Diagnosis is based upon sleep logs and characteristic actigraphic recordings made over several days. Chronotherapy may be used to treat ASPS; however, this therapy is not as successful in ASPS as in DSPS. Bright light exposure in the evening has been successful in delaying sleep onset. Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Disorder: Also known as Non-entrained, free running, or hypernychthemeral syndrome, is a disorder characterized by a patient's inability to maintain a regular bedtime and a sleep onset that occurs at irregular hours. Patients display increases in the delay of sleep onset by approximately one hour per sleep-wake cycle, causing an eventual progression of sleep onset through the daytime hours and into the evening. These individuals fail to be entrained or synchronized by usual time cues such as sunlight or social activities. This disorder is extremely rare and is most often associated with blindness. Parasomnia The parasomnias are a class of sleep disorders associated with arousals, partial arousals, and sleep stage transitions. They are dysfunctions (including movements and behaviors) that are associated with sleep, or that occur during sleep. Most parasomnias occur during delta sleep or slow wave sleep, although some can occur during any stage. REM Behavior Disorder, Nightmare Disorder, and Recurrent Isolated Sleep Paralysis are also included in this group although they are all associated with REM sleep. Rem Behavior Disorder (RBD) may involve a very drastic or sometimes violent dream enactment. Approximately 88% of known cases are in males. Elderly patients (over the age of 60) make up a high percentage of known cases (60%). RBD is now considered to be a possible indication of a future neurodegenerative disease such as Parkinson’s. Around 50% of patients with REM parasomnias also have some type of central nervous system disorder, and almost 10% have a psychiatric disorder. The treatment for these disorders is usually limited to securing the environment, but can also include the prescription of clonazepam. Think of parasomnias as things that patients may also do while sleeping, excluding movement disorders (other than RBD) which used to be included in this category as well. Examples would be Night Terrors, Nightmares, Hallucinations, Sleepwalking, or Enuresis (bed-wetting), etc. Parasomnias are covered in your text book on pages 482 - 484. Sleep-Related Movement Disorders Bruxism: Bruxism (teeth grinding) occurs most commonly in individuals between ages 10 and 20 years and is commonly noted in children with mental retardation or cerebral palsy. Bruxism is noted most prominently during NREM stages I and II and REM sleep. Episodes are characterized by stereotypical tooth grinding and are often precipitated by anxiety, stress, and dental disease. Occasionally, familial cases have been described. Usually, no treatment is required, but in extreme cases, dental reconstruction and appliances such as mouth guards may be needed. Periodic Limb Movement Disorder: Periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD, or PLMS for Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep) is a common sleep disorder affecting approximately 34% of people over the age of 60 years. PLMD can be defined as repetitive, involuntary limb movements during sleep. These movements are seen mostly in stage II sleep, and not in REM sleep due to muscle atonia in REM. The criteria for the leg movements to qualify as PLMS, the leg movements must last from 0.5 seconds to 5 seconds in duration each, there must be a gap of 5 to 90 seconds between each one, and there must be a cluster of at least 4 of these movements. Symptoms of PLMS often include frequent EEG arousals, fragmented sleep architecture, daytime sleepiness, and a disturbed bed partner. Treatment of PLMS usually includes medications. However, if the leg movements are related to respiratory events, they usually disappear when the respiratory events are corrected via CPAP, BiPAP, dental appliances, etc. The most common medications used to treat PLMS include Clonazepam, Dopamine Agonists, Anticonvulsants, and Opiates. Restless Legs Syndrome: Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) is a disorder that causes discomfort in the legs and an irresistible urge to move them. This scenario can occur while the patient is asleep or awake. Patients often describe this discomfort as an itching, crawling, or creeping sensation in their legs. RLS is a common disorder, and affects more than 5% of the total population. Most RLS patients begin having symptoms before the age of 20, and continue to have these symptoms throughout their lives. Most patients with RLS also have PLMS. The most common treatments for these disorders are medications, including benzodiazepines, dopamine, opiates, and alpha-adrenergic blockers. Nocturnal Leg Cramps: Nocturnal leg cramps are intensely painful sensations that are accompanied by muscle tightness occurring during sleep. These spasms usually last for a few seconds but sometimes persist for several minutes. Cramps during sleep are generally associated with awakening. Many normal individuals experience nocturnal leg cramps. Causes remain unknown. Local massage or movement of the limbs usually relieves the cramps. Rhythmic Movement Disorder: Rhythmic movement disorder occurs mostly in infants younger than 18 months of age, is occasionally associated with retardation, and is rarely familial. It is comprised of three characteristic movements: head rolling, headbanging, and body rocking. These episodes are usually not remembered once the person awakens. It affects approximately three times as many males as females. Treatment for rhythmic movement disorder usually includes behavior modification, benzodiazepines, and antidepressants. Rhythmic movement disorder is a benign condition, and usually, the patient outgrows the episodes. Other rhythmic movement disorders can be related to the use of a drug or substance, or to another medical condition. Isolated Symptoms, Apparently Normal Variants, and Unresolved Issues This category includes disorders that are borderline normal or are normal variants. These include such examples as long sleeper, short sleeper, hypnic jerks, and other types of twitching or jerking movements that may only occur at sleep onset or in newborns. You have probably seen someone display a hypnic jerk as they fell asleep, or you may have woken yourself jerking because you felt like you were falling. Things like snoring or sleep-talking could be included in this case if they are not causing symptoms of insomnia or excessive daytime sleepiness but are disturbing to the patient or other people. Other Sleep Disorders A diagnosis in this category gives the physician an option for when the diagnosis may not be clear or too unusual to clearly fit into one of the other categories. This diagnosis may often be used as a temporary diagnosis until the actual cause of the disorder is determined. Environmental Sleep Disorder could be something in the surrounding environment, such as a barking dog, that is disturbing the patient's sleep enough to cause symptoms. Appendix A: Sleep-Related Medical and Neurological Disorders This category includes disorders that sometimes occur unrelated to sleep, but are related to sleep in these cases. Examples are sleep-related epilepsy, headaches, Sleep-related Myocardial Ischemia, or gastroesophageal reflux. Fibromyalgia used to be included in this section. While fibromyalgia is not necessarily a disorder that is only related to sleep, it can cause arousals, or disruptions of the patient's sleep and is a common diagnosis of patients that you will see. Appendix B: Other Psychiatric/Behavioral Disorders Frequently Encountered in the Differential Diagnosis of Sleep Disorders This section includes mood disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, or any other psychiatric diagnosis that may affect the patient's quality of sleep. Therefore, you will also likely see patients who have been referred by a psychiatrist on occasions. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Sleep Disorders These are terms that were previously used to differentiate between disorders that originated from within the body and those that were caused by something in the outside environment. However, I think that you could still see these terms again, so I think it is a good idea for you to be familiar with this terminology. INTRINSIC DISORDERS Intrinsic disorders include various types of insomnia and restless legs syndrome. Narcolepsy and recurrent hypersomnia are disorders of excessive sleepiness. Hypersomnolence can also be caused by narcolepsy, apnea, sleep disordered breathing, or periodic limb movements in sleep. EXTRINSIC DISORDERS Extrinsic sleep disorders include those that originate or develop from causes outside the body. Some of these dyssomnias found within this category include: conditions of inadequate sleep hygiene, altitude insomnia, food allergy insomnia, nocturnal eating, limit-setting sleep disorder, and sleep-onset association disorder. Sleep apnea is a disorder that commonly afflicts more than 12 million people in the United States. The word apnea is of Greek origin and means "without breath." Patients diagnosed with sleep apnea will literally stop breathing numerous times while they are asleep. The apneas on average can last from ten seconds to longer than a minute. These events can occur hundreds of times during a single night of sleep. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is the most common type of apnea found within the category of sleep disordered breathing. OSA is caused by a complete obstruction of the airway, while partial closure is referred to as a hypopnea. The hypopnea is characterized by slow, shallow breathing. There are three types of apneas: obstructive, central, and mixed. So, sleep disordered breathing may be due to an airway obstruction (OSA), an abnormality in the part of the brain that controls respiration (central sleep apnea), or a combination of both ( mixed sleep apnea). This lesson will concentrate on obstructive sleep apnea. OSA occurs in approximately two percent of women and four percent of men over the age of 35. Check out this video for a good example of an OSA patient: Sleep Apnea - Hard to Watch... (Links open in a new window. Right click on link and choose "open in a new window") Obstructive Sleep Apnea sufferers are not always the ones that you would expect. Check out this video of an Asian woman, especially near the end: Sleep Apnea Causes of Obstructive Sleep Apnea The exact cause of OSA is difficult to pinpoint. The site of obstruction in most patients is the soft palate, extending to the region at the base of the tongue. There are no rigid structures, such as cartilage or bone, in this area to hold the airway open. When a patient is awake, muscles in the region keep the passage open. However, a patient who tests positive for OSA will experience a collapsing of the airway when they are asleep. Thus, the obstruction occurs, and the patient awakens to open the airway. The arousal from sleep lasts only a few seconds, but brief arousals disrupt continuous sleep. When the sleep architecture is fragmented, the patient will be prevented from obtaining SWS and REM sleep ( these stages of sleep are needed by the body to replenish its strength ). Once normal breathing is restored, the person falls asleep only to repeat the cycle throughout the night. Typically, the frequency of waking episodes is somewhere between 10 and 60. A patient with severe OSA may have more than 100 waking episodes in a night of sleep. Often, the OSA patient will complain of nonrestorative sleep and excessive daytime sleepiness. Risk Factors The primary risk factor for OSA is excessive weight gain. The accumulation of fat on the sides of the upper airway causes it to become narrow and predisposed to closure when the muscles relax. Age is another prominent risk factor. Loss of muscle mass is a common occurrence associated with the aging process. If muscle mass decreases in the airway, it may be replaced with fat, leaving the airway narrow and soft. Men have a greater risk for OSA. Male hormones can cause structural changes in the upper airway. Below are other common predisposing factors associated with OSA: Anatomic abnormalities, such as a receding chin Enlarged tonsils and adenoids ( the main causes of OSA in children) Family history of OSA ( However, there has been no medically documented facts stating a generic inheritance pattern ) Use of alcohol and sedative drugs, which relax the musculature in the surrounding upper airway Smoking, which can cause inflammation, swelling, and narrowing of the upper airway Hypothyroidism, acromegaly, amyloidosis, vocal cord paralysis, post-polio syndrome, neuromuscular disorders, Marfan's syndrome, and Down syndrome Nasal and sinus congestion or problems Symptoms of OSA The nightly disruption and fragmentation of normal sleep architecture will cause the patient to experience the feeling of nonrestorative sleep. The most common complaint from someone who suffers from OSA is excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) . The numerous disruptions and arousals will prevent the patient from obtaining a continuous deep sleep. Thus, the individual could also be prone to automobile accidents, personality changes, decreased memory, impotence, and depression. Patients are rarely aware or recall the frequent awakenings that occur following the obstructive episodes. EDS may be mild, moderate, or severe. Some patients will complain of falling asleep in a non stimulating environment, such as reading a book or a newspaper in a quiet room. Severe OSA patients may complain of falling asleep in a stimulating environment, such as during business meetings, eating, or casual conversation. One of the most dangerous scenarios is patients who suffer from OSA can fall asleep behind the wheel. Patients will often complain of feeling like they have not slept at all no matter of the length of time in bed. The same holds true for napping. Other indicators or symptoms of possible OSA include morning headaches and frequent urination during the night. Physical signs that coincides with characteristics of OSA patients include snoring, witnessed apneic episodes, and obesity. Not every individual who snores will test positive for OSA, but most patients who have OSA will snore with moderate to loud levels. Hypertension is prevalent in patients with OSA, although the exact relationship is unclear. It has been medically proven that treating OSA can significantly lower blood pressure. Complications The most prevalent complication for patients who suffer from OSA is a diminished quality of life due to chronic sleep deprivation and previous described symptoms. Coronary artery disease, cerebral vascular accidents (strokes), and congestive heart failure are being evaluated to define the exact nature of their connection to OSA. Still, it has documented that there is a relation between these complications and OSA. Obstructive sleep apnea aggravates congestive heart failure (CHF) by placing stress on the heart during sleep. Statistics show there is a high prevalence of OSA in patients with CHF. Central sleep apnea may be prominent in patients with CHF. Diagnosis The most universal method for diagnosing OSA is to have the patient undergo a sleep study. The technical name for the procedure is nocturnal polysomnograph. The first priority with any procedure is patient safety. A thorough analysis of the information gathered prior to beginning the test will give the technician an opportunity to determine the reason for testing, to verify all necessary monitoring parameters, and to determine the possible need for ancillary equipment. The technician must be aware of any precautions or special patient needs during testing. An understanding and knowledge of the signs, symptoms, and findings of a variety of sleep disorders and sleep related breathing disorders is necessary to ensure patient safety and recording requirements during polysomnography testing. Various medical problems will be encountered with the patients undergoing a sleep study. Examples of these complications include: asthma, COPD, cardiac arrhythmias, carbon dioxide narcosis, and abnormal breathing. Numerous cardiac arrhythmias may occur and they include: asystole, ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation, bigeminy, trigeminy, multi-focal PVC's, heart blocks, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, or tachycardia associated with sleep apnea. Some of these cardiac arrhythmias are life threatening and require technician intervention. Others are relatively benign and require only that the technician watch the patient closely. Thus, all polysomnography technicians will be required to be certified in Basic Life Support. The polysomnography testing will include recording of multiple physiological parameters in sleep. These parameters usually include EEG, EKG, eye movements, respiration, muscle tone, body position, body movements, and oxygen saturation. The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures brain electrical activity. The brain activity during different stages of sleep as compared to wake is distinctly different. The electrooculogram (EOG) monitors eye movements and allows the examiner to determine REM sleep and wake. The electromyogram (EMG) monitors muscle tone, and the EMG helps to differentiate REM sleep from wake because the muscles relax to a state of paralysis in REM sleep. The electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) monitors heart rate and graphs the electrical signal as it is conducted through the heart. Respiratory effort belts are placed around the patient's chest and abdomen to detect and record the rising and falling movements associated with respiration. A pulse oximeter is attached to the finger to record oxygen saturation levels in the blood. Leg leads or electrodes are attached to record leg movements which may determine the patient has periodic limb movement disorder. A thermistor is used to monitor breathing. Obstructive sleep apnea is diagnosed if the patient has an apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) of 5 or greater an hour. The respiratory disturbance index (RDI) is sometimes used in place of the AHI and essentially refers to the same data. However, in the recent past, RDI was an index that also included the number of respiratory effort related arousals(RERAS) per hour in addition to the hypopneas and apneas. Some sleep centers may still do this, but most are currently not scoring the RERAS due to non-coverage of insurance. An RDI from five to ten per hour would be a positive finding for OSA as well. Clinically speaking, an obstructive apnea is defined as a complete cessation of airflow for 10 seconds or more with persistent respiratory effort. An obstructive hypopnea is defined as a partial reduction in airflow of at least 30 percent followed by a drop in SaO2 of at least 3% or an arousal from sleep, or an alternate definition of 50 percent reduction in nasal pressure airflow signal followed by at least a 4% drop in SaO2(desaturation). Medicare still requires the 4% drop in SaO2 for their patients, but the first definition is recommended by the American Academy of Sleep currently. SaO2 refers to the amount of Oxygen in the blood being carried by the red blood cells. This will always drop when a patient stops breathing. The many physiological measurements taken usually enable the physician to diagnose or reasonably exclude OSA. Certain scenarios may prove a more difficult diagnosis. Such as, a patient who may have mild OSA at home, or only after using certain medications or alcohol but does not experience any episodes during the sleep study. Thus, the sleep study results must be interpreted with the entire clinical picture in mind. Another condition, called upper airway resistance syndrome, cannot be seen on polysomnography. This syndrome is characterized by repetitive arousals from sleep that probably result from increasing respiratory effort during narrowing of the upper airway. These patients suffer the same sleep disruption and deprivation as other sleep apnea patients. In such cases, the only alarming indicator that is recorded is the recurrent arousals. Ultimately, patients suffering from upper airway resistance syndrome may not test positive for OSA with standard polysomnography testing. Treatment A patient suffering from OSA has several treatment options that include: weight reduction, positional therapy, positive pressure therapy, surgical options, and oral appliances. Significant weight loss has shown tremendous improvement and possible elimination of OSA. The amount of weight a patient needs to lose to achieve noticeable benefits varies. However, one will not need to achieve "ideal body weight" to see improvement. Positional therapy is a method of treatment used to treat patients whose OSA is related to body positioning during sleep. A OSA patient who sleeps flat on their back, or in supine position, will experience worse symptoms in general. This type of therapy has its limits, but some patients have experienced benefits. Some of the strategic methods include: a sock filled with tennis balls is sewn into their shirt to make it uncomfortable for the sleeper to lie on their back, and positional pillows to assist in sleeping on their side. Positive pressure therapy is one of the most if not the best methods of treatment for obstructive sleep apnea. There are three different types of devices: continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), autotitration, and bi-level positive airway pressure. CPAP, the more common of the three therapy modes, is the most prescribed method of treatment for OSA. A facial or nasal mask is worn by the patient while they sleep. The mask is connected to the CPAP machine with tubing. Positive air pressure is delivered from the machine to the mask and continues to the upper airways establishing a "pneumatic splint" that prevents collapsing of the airways. Autotitration devices are designed to provide the minimum necessary pressure at any given time and change that pressure as the needs of the patient change. Bi-level positive airway pressure differs from the CPAP by reducing the level of positive pressure upon exhalation. Oral appliances are another avenue a patient can try as a therapeutic device. Generally, there are two categories, mandibular advance devices and tongue-retaining devices. Mandibular advance devices are similar to athletic mouth guards. They differ in the mold for the lower teeth is advanced further forward than the mold for the upper teeth. This will cause the jawbone to remain forward and prevent the collapse of the airway. It is effective in mild cases of OSA, particularly if the patient's OSA is positional. Tongue-retaining devices also resemble an athletic mouth guard. It acts as a suction cup and is placed between the upper and lower teeth. The tongue is positioned forward and obstructions caused by the tongue should be minimized. First described in 1981, CPAP therapy has become the most preferred treatment for patients with OSA. CPAP flow generators or machines maintain a constant, controllable pressure to prevent blockage of the upper airway. The positive air pressure travels through the nostrils by a nasal or facial mask. This airflow holds the soft tissue of the uvula, palate, and pharyngeal tissue in the upper airway in position so the airway remains open while the patient progresses into deeper stages of sleep and REM sleep. The CPAP device can be described as a "pneumatic splint." Variations to the CPAP machine are available to help with compliance. BPAP, Bi-PAP or bi-level positive airway pressure is another option for treatment. Those three are one and the same. They are just different ways that you might see this term. The AASM guidelines uses "BPAP" in their protocol publications. BiPAP is a trademarked term by a company named Respironics. Anyway, most of the problems patients experience with CPAP are caused by having to exhale against a high airway pressure. Because the air pressure required to prevent respiratory obstruction is typically less on expiration than on inspiration, Bi-PAP machines are designed to detect when the patient is inhaling and exhaling and to reduce the pressure to a preset level on exhalation. Patients with severe OSA may require maximum levels of pressure to eliminate the obstructive apnea. Bi-PAP may be the chosen method of treatment with this scenario, and Bi-PAP may be used when the patient has more than one respiratory disorder. Regardless of the mechanism used, the goal of the technician should always be to titrate the machine to the lowest possible pressure to eradicate the sleep apnea. Each individual patient with OSA will present a different scenario for the attending polysomnography technician. The sleep study with positive airway pressure titration will need to achieve the optimal pressure for the specific patient. The sleep study with CPAP/Bi-PAP will show not only when the respiratory events have ceased, but also when the arousals from the respiratory events occur. The ultimate goal for the technician during a titration process is to achieve the minimal optimum pressure to eliminate all obstructive events and snoring during all stages of sleep and all body positions while sleeping. Compliance Mask fitting is an essential element of a patient's success with positive airway pressure therapy since it affects compliance and effectiveness of treatment. The higher pressures used during CPAP/Bi-PAP therapy can cause a significant air leak with the mask. The leak can also emerge from the patient's mouth if they are using a mask that doesn't cover the mouth. This can startle a new CPAP user. The leak can wake the patient from sleep. Thus, the mask stability is tested with higher pressures. Higher pressures may also require tighter head gear to maintain an adequate seal. Adversely, this will contribute to the discomfort from wearing the mask. When selecting a CPAP mask the following factors should be considered: comfort quality of air seal convenience quietness air venting CPAP/Bi-PAP machines are also available with humidity. Nasal congestion and dryness are very common complaints with positive airway pressure therapy. Humidification can also be heated. These features have proven to help with patient compliance. Ultimately, the biggest obstacle with compliance is getting patients to comply with their own treatment. Without the patient's willingness to use it, CPAP will not provide effective therapy. Studies have shown that CPAP compliance varies from approximately 65% to 85%. The bottom line for the patient to experience the benefits and relief of complaints is they must use the machine on a nightly basis. Information regarding the degree to which a patient is compliant with CPAP is essential for assessment of therapeutic impact. If problems persist after implementation of CPAP, the causes could include: delivery of insufficient pressure to maintain upper airway patency during sleep misdiagnosis of the etiology of the individual's symptoms failure to use the device for a sufficient duration on a regular basis Possible Side Effects The principal side effects with CPAP/Bi-PAP use include: contact dermatitis nasal congestion rhinorrhea dry eyes mouth leaks nose bleeds (rare) tympanic membrane rupture (very rare) chest pain aerophagia (the excessive swallowing of air, often resulting in belching) pneumoencephalitis (air in the brain, which is extremely rare, reported in a patient with a chronic cerebral spinal fluid leak) claustrophobia smothering sensation Actions can be taken to counteract some of the side effects. Nasal congestion or dryness often can be reduced or eliminated with nasal sprays or humidification. Rhinorrhea can be eliminated with nasal steroid sprays or ipratropium bromide nasal sprays. Epistaxis (nose bleeds) is usually due to dry mucosa and can be treated with humidification. Skin irritation can be combated with different mask materials. Dry eyes are usually caused by mask leaks and can be eliminated by changing to a better fitting mask. Attempts to reduce claustrophobic complaints have resulted in the patient using nasal pillows or prongs as opposed to the nasal or facial mask. Mouth leaks can be reduced or eliminated by using a chin strap. A small number of patients complain of chest pain or discomfort with CPAP use. This can probably be attributed to increased end-expiratory pressure and the consequent elevation of resting lung volume, which stretches wall muscles and cartilaginous structures. The resulting sensation that is created is due to chest wall pressure that persists through the hours of wakefulness. Any complaints of chest pain should always be taken seriously. However, if the complaint by the patient on CPAP proves to be nondiagnostic, Bi-PAP therapy may prove to be an option since expiratory pressure can be reduced. Sometimes it pays for the technologist to develop some psychological skills in order to convince the patient to use the device. I have found that a patient who doesn't seem to believe they need CPAP tends to change her/his mind when they see the data that shows him not breathing. Keep in mind that your patients can't see themselves sleep. They may also not be aware of all the possible complications of OSA down the road. Another area of concern for OSA patients using CPAP/BPAP devices is the negative effects on arterial blood gases and oxyhemoglobin saturation. Studies have reported severe oxyhemoglobin desaturation during nasal CPAP therapy in a hypercapnic (elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the blood) sleep apnea patients. Studies have also shown significant oxygen desaturations with CPAP administration with supplemental oxygen. The exact cause has yet to be determined. This occurrence may be due to the following factors: worsening hypoventilation related to the added mechanical impedance to ventilation associated with exhalation against increased pressure increased dead-space ventilation a decrease in venous return and cardiac output due to increased intrathoracic pressure during CPAP administration in patients with impaired right or left ventricular function and inadequate filling pressure One more possibility is when the optimal pressure setting has not been reached yet. Therefore, a ten second apnea may have turned into a 90 second hypopnea. The patient may not arouse from sleep as quickly to get a breath since the airway is not completely closing off as it was without therapy. This should improve once enough pressure is added, however. Despite the above scenarios and problematic experiences, CPAP/Bi-PAP administration has been reported to improve awake arterial blood gases in OSA patients with hypercapnia and cor pulmonale. Traditional and Evolving Methods of Initiating CPAP/BPAP Different methods have been established for implementation of positive airway pressure therapy. Traditionally, patients have undergone a technician attended PSG-monitored trial of CPAP. Split-night studies are now conducted more frequently. Home CPAP trials is another avenue that is being investigated. Use of predictive formulas to estimate or establish optimal level for CPAP therapy has been investigated. Each scenario has advantages and disadvantages. CPAP Therapy of Nonapneic SDB There are numerous documentations of patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) suffering from sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). Most often the respiratory events will be central in nature (no effort, brain not sending signal to breathe) resembling Cheyne-Stokes respiration (CSR). CSR is defined as a breathing pattern characterized by regular "crescendo-decrescendo" fluctuations in respiratory rate and tidal volume. The presence of SDB was associated with sleep-fragmentation and increased nocturnal hypoxemia. The conclusions from the findings are stated below: There is a high prevalence of daytime sleepiness in patients with CSR in conjunction with CHF. Patients with CHF who also have CSR have a higher mortality than patients who have CHF without CSR. CSR, AHI (apnea/hypopnea index), and the frequency of arousals were correlated with mortality. Furthermore, research has found CPAP has been noteworthy and effective on breathing in patients with CHF and CSR. The results of several studies showed an increase in cardiac output and stroke volume and a reduction in left ventricular wall tension during application of CPAP. The improvements seen in CHF patients with CSR regarding cardiac function during sleep is believed to carry over to wakefulness. Possible factors contributing to the improvements seen include: sleep-related reduction of left ventricular transmural pressure improved oxygenation during sleep reduced sympathetic nervous system activation during sleep CPAP machines have become a lot more sophisticated during the past decade. One of these updates is the ability of some machines to generate an algorithm that can predict the next breath of these central sleep apnea patients. These machines will adjust how much air is delivered during each breath based on this prediction. This has the effect of making the breathing pattern more consistent. You may see this denoted as Auto-SV, or servo-ventilation. We will talk about this more later, but I just wanted you to be aware that there are more sophisticated machines for patients with CHF and irregular breathing patterns that are not due to obstructions. Effects of Altitude Changes and Alcohol Consumption Older CPAP machines will not adjust to changes in altitude. As altitude increases, the older CPAP devices will deliver progressively lower than prescribed pressure. The more modern devices will detect altitude changes and make the appropriate adjustments. The polysomnography technician would benefit from information regarding a patient relocating from a high altitude location to lower altitude or vice versa if there are complaints of the CPAP therapy being nontherapeutic. Alcohol consumption can present further complications for a patient suffering from OSA. Alcohol suppresses the arousal response. The patient may experience a greater frequency and duration of apneas and hypopneas and increased snoring. Excessive alcohol use also increases sleep fragmentation. Taking a sedative can cause these effects to be imitated or exacerbated. Still, there are reports stating moderate alcohol consumption did not significantly alter the level of pressure required to eliminate the obstructive events. Nonetheless, OSA patients should avoid alcohol

Unit 1 Mercantilism -Economic relationship where the mother country has tight economic control -England's goal was to maximize wealth and power Navigation Acts -Laws that prevent colonies from trading/selling or buying from other countries Salutary neglect -Good neglect -GB was backing off the colonies - Not military or trade Middle Passage -2-3 month voyage -15% died on the ship -slaves are captured and chained together Enlightenment - A movement started in Europe by a small group of intellectuals -discussed thoughts, wrote books, and sent them to America. -Influenced America -believed there was a natural solution to every problem54rat vc Diests -Not a religious group -Believed there was a creator -Believed the creator was gone now, standing outside human experience, or just gone -Therefore, there is no reason to pray or go to church John Locke -English Philosopher -Believe every person has natural rights -Life liberty and property -Believed if the government wasn’t respecting these rights, the people could overthrow it Benjamin Franklin -Liked John Locke's Ideas -Freed slaves because of Lockes’ ideas -Referred to America as slaves to GB that should be freed Great Awakening/Pietism -A Christian movement stressed individual connection to god -didn’t like the king being the head of American churches -people required by law to attend church and pay taxes to the church -The revival movement started with thousands of people outside of the church -rejected English church system French and Indian War (including impacts on revolution) -Conflict between France and England -native american tribes helped both sides -Colonies were on the coast, french was on the inland -Settlers tried to move west and ran into french -France had a fur trading empire Sugar Act -Not the amount that mattered, it was the principal -A small tax on sugar -Re-enactment of molasses tax -People couldn't protest because they would be caught illegally trading it Stamp Act Tax on anything sold that was made out of paper It is not a huge amount but it affects a lot of people Stamp Act Congress Group of middle-aged educated men -made legal arguments -no tax w/o representation -No jury trial = not right -very respectful Sons of Liberty -young, violent, rowdy people, -South out by Stamp Act -bullies, terrorist-esk -Paid to do the calm group dirty work Declaratory Act -said that GB had the right to tax the colonies -warning official statement -one year after the Stamp Act was repealed Townshend Acts -taxed people on four things -paper -paint -glass -tea -GB argued they needed the money -affected virtually every American Non-Importation -Didn’t buy or use anything British -Loyalists were targeted with violence -Idea to shut British down economically Daughters of liberty -used gender-based skills -Women made their clothes and clothes and made others if they couldn’t Boston Massacre -Lots of British soldiers + SOL on streets -Soldiers surrounded and attacked with snowballs, rocks, bottles, pavement -A gun raised in the air to shoot, the smoke clears and 5 dead -exaggerated the event to send a message, made into propaganda -made out to be a completely random attack on Americans Tea Act -Lowered the tax on tea -GB had an economic problem with the British East India Tea Company -Made British tea the cheapest tea Committees of Correspondence -Properganda and social media -Coordinated the riders to spread the propaganda to other areas -the message was to not fall for the British tea -many SOLs took part in this -made physical threats to British ship captains. Boston tea Party -Ships in Boston harbor waiting for soldier escort -SOL disguised themselves as Native Americans -At night dumped a lot of pales of tea into the harbor -342 chests of tea destroyed, major financial loss for GB Coercive (Intolerable) Acts -Nicknamed intolerable acts by patriots -Boston Port Act (shut down harbor) -Ma. Gov. Act (shut down all colonial gov) -New Quartering Act (sent more soldiers, colonists had to house them) -Administration of Justice Act (soldiers who committed a capital crime would go to GB for trial) 1st Continental Congress -hoped to go to war but not independence. -rep from every colony except Georgia -3 things were decided -organize militias -keep boycotting -meet again in spring Loyalists (Tories) -Completely loyal to GB -snitch on patriots -⅓ of colonists Paul Revere -Rode from Boston to Concord -warned British soldiers were coming (bc patriots were gathering weapons) -Soldiers were going to break up the weapon-gathering Minutemen -Middle-aged men + teenage sons w/o military experience -said they'd be ready in a minute if needed Lexington and Concord -Militia started shooting soldiers who were taken by surprise -Casualties on both sides (273 GB) (95 Patriots) -The British retreated to Boston, and people shot them along the way 2nd Continental Congress -Met in May 1775 -Decided three things -no more militias, make a continental army -Continue boycotting -2 groups would send letters to the king -The” Olive Branch Petition” asked the king to step in, no war, but reverse British policy -” Declaration of causes of taking up arms” reasons why they’d fight -The King messaged both groups “I will crush you” (basically), which united both groups. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense -50 page pamphlet convincing the middle group to join the patriot cause - Is it in the interest of a man to be a boy all his life? -A gov. Of our own is our natural right ‘tis time to part. -Question, why do you obey the king? Thomas Jefferson/ Declaration of Independence -Jefferson wrote it with help from Franklin and Adams -Gave a list of reasons for independence -used “he” to target people's anger towards the king -” life liberty and the pursuit of happiness” -Helped more colonists to join the patriots. War of Attrition/George Washington -Not play by rules -make it difficult for the enemy - make the British think the war is stupid and give up Battle of Trenton/Battle of Princeton -British in NYC, Americans in Pennsylvania -On Christmas night patriots crossed the Delaware River, a surprise attack. -Heschians surrendered. Battle of Saratoga/General John Burgoyne - Burgoyne was overconfident in himself and told soldiers to bring family and friends -Got ambushed by minutemen at Saratoga, minutemen attacked the back of the basic parade situation happening. -John Burgoyne escaped, not defeated. Funding the Continental Army -borrowed money from France and other British enemies -borrowed gold and silver but they were afraid to raise taxes -printed money, not worth face value causing insane inflation Treaty of Paris (1783) -Treaty negotiation took 2 years Formally recognize that GB no longer had claims in North America, and USA is not a country All land won in french- Indian War was now American American fishing ships were allowed to fish in GB waters off the coast of Canada If GB Freed slaves they had to give them back Both countries had access to the Mississippi River America agreed to not persecute or bother loyalists (agreed to but not followed) Loyalists after the war -A lot of them left -Many went to Canada - A small group went to England -Few went to the British West Indies -Some stayed, had to keep their mouths shut, and live American Established churches after the war -Freedom of religion was prominent -Religion was big -Church of England turned into Episcopalion Chuch Unit 2 Mixed Government -people feared too much democracy -elect people to represent them, a democratic republic System of checks and balances Articles of Confederation -first constitution -four things, Power to form army and navy Power to declare independence and war Power to establish diplomatic relationships between nations Right to handle sidputs against the states. -did not include the right to tax Northwest Ordinance of 1787 -Procedure on how territories would become states The adult white male population of 5,000 in the territory could send a non-voting rep to Congress Could become a state when the adult white male population is 60,000 Write the state constitution and apply for statehood Shays’ Rebellion -Daniel was the leader -farmers fed up after fighting in the war, and the debt wasn't their fault -tried to overthrow the Ma. state government -4,000 state soldiers fought the farmers, they won after months Virginia Plan -James Madison's plan at the Constitutional Convention -congress with two parts upper/lower house -reps depended on the state's population New Jersey Plan -William Patterson plan -Single-house legislature -equal representation Connecticut Compromise -take both ideas and mush them together -Senate, equal representation -house of reps, based on population -electoral college ⅗ Compromise -Decided after the electoral college system was decided -Southern states wanted slaves to count towards pop, the North did not -a slave counted as ⅗ of a person for electoral college + house of reps Difference between Federalists and Anti-Federalists -Federalists wanted to ratify the constitution and have a strong central government -Anti-federalists had two problems with the constitution Wanted states rights Wanted individual rights Federalist Papers -Hamilton, Jay, and Madison wrote anonymous essays -Convince people to approve the constitution -Helped to gain support Bill of rights -wrote to please the anti-federalists -includes the first ten amendments -worked, and it was ratified Thomas Jefferson vs. Hamilton on the Constitution -Jefferson had a strict interpretation, this meant following it to a t. -Jefferson meant this to limit the power of the constitution -Hamilton had a loose interpretation, which meant unless the constitution says no, they can do it -This meant to stretch the power of the constitution Hamilton's financial plan 1. Report on Public Credit, This addressed all levels of debt People could give paper money to the government and they'd redeem it at face value. Or people could give loan certificates back and provide a new one with interest. 2. Report on a national bank Established a national bank that held money at taxes Should be a large government institution 3. Report on manufactures Not adopted Use money to get new manufacturing businesses going Jay's Treaty -George Washington sent John Jay to negotiate for a stop to the bullying of ships at sea -A last resort, ended with GB saying they’ll stop and start trading with the USA Whiskey Rebellion -Corn farmers in Pa. angry because of corn prices and attempt to overthrow the state government -Washington sent 15,000 federal troops and he led them himself to send a message XYZ Affair - Adams tried to make a treaty for American ships being bullied, sent a rep to France -Prime minister rep refuses to meet with our rep -Adams tried again and sent three more reps who again denied - Democrats in Congress accused Adams of never trying to negotiate -Adams told them what happened and replaced their names with XYZ Aliens and sedition acts 1. Naturalization act, had to live in us for 14 years to apply for citizenship (previously 4) 2. Alien Act On suspension, non-citizens could be deported to their country of origin 3. Alien EnemiesAct If at war, us could deport migrants without suspension 4. Sedition Act. Made sedition a crime, if convicted $2,000 or two years in jail Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions/ Nullification -Declared states had fundamental rights that the federal government could not infringe -Stated that states could nullify laws that they viewed as unconstitutional Revolution of 1800 -Think about Hamilton's musical. -Adams and Jefferson run again, Burr comes in third, and Jefferson (after a tie) wins. - Adams did not put up a fight when leaving before the inauguration. Louisiana Purchase -Louisiana territory purchased from France for $ 15 million -Neoplean realized he didn’t care about the western hemisphere, and sold it to make a profit Lewis and Clack Expedition -An expedition to explore the Louisiana territory -Wanted to learn about the weather, terrain, native Americans, etc. -Ended on the Oregon coast at Fort Clatsop. -A very peaceful trip they brought presents for tribes, brought Sacagawea 2 Reasons Burr became infamous -Challenged and killed Hamilton in a dual -Fled to the Mississippi River area -plotted to overthrow that area and become dictators with James Wilkonson Troubles with Britain and France at Sea -GB had impressed 8,000 American sailors -Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1808 which halted trade with the countries but backfired. War Hawks and their goals -Young men who wanted to expand US land -Get Canada and Florida -they were very aggressive and would go to war for this -Jefferson's party. Causes of the Way of 1812 The -US gov said it was the bullying of ships at sea and native americans -Historians say it was the war hawks wanting to expand land. Treaty of Ghent -Established in 1815 for the War of 1812 -established no real winner or loser and everything would go back to normal. -historians think this is why GB stopped bullying our ships. Hartford Convention -Federalists met up during the war to discuss secession -made them look like traitors after the war -capitalized on the unpopularity of the war Eli Whitney -Creator of the cotton gin -made it when American cotton and slavery were declining -caused both those things to expand exponentially Missouri Compromise -Henry Clay -Union had a perfect balance of slave and not slave states -Missouri would be upset about this -had Missouri join as a slave state -Main break off from Ma. and become a free state In the long term, any state joining below the 36, 30 would be a slave state Rush-Bagot Treaty -By John Quincy Adams -Established the north border of the US after Canada and the states expanded fully Adams-Onis Treaty -John Quincy Adams -treaty with Spain -US bought Florida Monroe Doctrine -Established European countries had to stay out of the western hemisphere -No new countries -Helped GB by letting them have land uncontested -in return, GB would protect the us Election of 1824 (corrupt bargain) -3 presidential candidates none had the majority but Jackson had the most -Clay had the least about of votes but was the speaker of the house -made a deal with Adams that if Clay endorsed him Clay could be Sec of State. -Made Adamss an unpopular president John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and the “American System” 1. Protective Tariff 2. Internal improvements (roads canals etc.) 3. A national bank Andrew Jackson's views of the American System 1. the tariff was a conspiracy against the South because they were more agricultural 2. the roads and canals were fine but he’d rather the states fund them 3 . The national bank was corrupt and run by wealthy people to stuff their own pockets Tariff of Abominations -Jackson had lost an election and wanted to win this one had Southern support but not northern -gained support by making a tariff (helped him gain support in the north) Kitchen Cabinet -Jackson did not trust his cabinet -never held a cabinet meeting -Held meetings with friends around the kitchen table instead Spoils System -Fired everyone -put his followers in government positions -no one was qualified for the positions they gained Second Part system (democrats vs. Whigs) -emerged in the 1830’s -whigs: - Less extreme federalists -anti-andrew Jackson -more elitist party (educated + wealthy) -democrats stayed the same (party of the south) Panic of 1837 -An economic depression caused by Jackson partially when he removed all the money from the national bank -Also by the tariff of 1828 -made it harder for GB and USA to do business they pulled out of investments and business Election of 1840/ Williams Henry Harrison -Whigs finally only ran one person who was a war hero to draw more people in -Harrison won but got pneumonia and died a month into his presidency John Tyler’s Presidency -VP to William Henry Harrison -hated by both parties -he was a Democrat but ran as a Whig because he got screwed over by Jackson -Whigs hated him because he was a Democrat and vice versa American Colonization society -Abolitionist movement -thought that they would buy slaves off their owners and return them to Africa -only 6,000 slaves were freed and they founded Liberia Though blacks and whites couldn’t or shouldn’t live together Nat Tuener’s Rebellion -Nat Turner is a slave who never did anything wrong to his master -had a vision from god -several plantations revolted at the same time -made plantation owners paranoid and more strict -All escaped slaves were eventually killed or returned to their plantations Theodore Dwight Weld/ Angelina Grimke #powercouple -Theodore was a minister abolitionist and had an audience because of that -Angelina was born and raised on a plantation but moved to the north to be an outspoken abolitionist Manifest DestinyNorthernersrs and Southerners agreed on this -Assumption that the US would expand to the [acific and central land -seen as good and pure Fifty-Four fort or fight -A line of latitude -Wanted all of Oregon country and they would fight for it James Polk -A president from Tenesse that no one knew -Ran on getting Texas and Oregon -Said he would and only served on term General Winfield Scott -General in the Mexican-American war -Had a secret amphibious operation that they went from Vera Cruz to Mexico City -took over Mexico City and Mexico surrendered Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo -Polk could have taken all of Mexico and had pressure from Southerners to do so -He only took Texas Election of 1848 -Polk didn’t rerun -the whig Zachery Taylor won, he was a southern slave owner who was a general -Democrats ran Lewis Cass who was a northerner and not pro-slavery. Popular sovereignty -Lewis Cass’s view on slavery and expansion -Appealed to the people in the middle -When a state entered the union they would vote on being a slave or free state California Gold Rush -Gold was found in California in 1848 and many people moved there -California didn’t agree with the Missouri compromise Gadsden Purchase -bought the southern part of Arizona -originally wanted more but the Mexican government talked them down Compromise of 1850 -5 parts -only two important -the admission of California as a free state -passage of the fugitive slave act Unit 3 Election of 1852 -Pierce was the democratic candidate who won because Whigs were divided over slavery -Whigs won General Winfield Scott who was anti-slavery which some whigs didn’t like Kansas-Nebraska Act/Stephen A. Douglas -Stephen was trying to be a great compromise like Clay -Proposed that Kansas and Nebraska become states and use popular sovereignty -The South was happy because those states never had a chance to be slave states and now they did -The North was worried about the South and formed a new political party to replace the Whigs (republicans) American (know nothing) Party -3rd party who was anti-immigrant and anti-catholic -Thought the Irish were going to try to take over America as Catholics -leaders told them to respond with “know nothing” when asked about what their party was about Bleeding Kansas -Lawrence Kansas was a free town -Slavery supporters attacked Lawrence, killed, burned buildings, raped people. -the goal was to terrify the anti-slavery side John Brown –A very serious abolitionist who thought god was using him to end slavery -Took four of his sons and two other men to get revenge for Lawrence Kansas -Went to pro-slavery people houses who had nothing to do with the attacks -Dragged the men of the families onto the lawn and killed them The caning of the summer (Charles Sumner) -An abolitionist senator who gave a speech on the Senate floor –called out important people like President Pierce and SC Senator Andrew Butler (old guy) -Butler’s relative Preston Brookes got revenge for Butler by caning Charles Sumner Election of 1856 (Buchanan vs. Fremont) -Buchanan (D) was northern but pro-south -Fremont was the other candidate -Buchanan was a dough face who got all of the South and some of the North so he won -Fremont was a free soiler Lecompton Constitution -Pro-slavery people met in Lecompton to write a state constitution or Kansas -Sent to DC House of reps and President Buchanan publicly endorses it anyways –House people didn’t endorse it because it was completely fraud. Dred Scott -Scott was a slave taken from south to north and argued he could be free -The Supreme Court was dominated by Southerners and decided against Scott -implied slavery could be taken anywhere. Lincoln-Douglas Debates -Debated slavery in the Senate race. -Lincoln from Illinois condemned slavery but his priority was the union -Douglas was a moderate, liked popular sovereignty - Lincoln thought slaves should have rights in the Constitution, and Douglas fell back on popular sovereignty and he won Election of 1860 -Abraham Lincoln won - beat out Douglass Secession -SC started secession and the deep South followed -Feb. 1862 all southern states succeeded -The South considered themselves a new country, but Lincoln did not. Crittenden Plan -Buchanan supports this -Congress tried to stop secession by: -Extend Missouri compromise line -never try to abolish slavery -North rejected it Fort Sumter -Lincoln is the president -Confederates said if the US didn’t evacuate by a certain time they would attack it -kicked off the Civil War, confederacy got control of the fort -no deaths or injuries -April 12, 1861 Jefferson Davis -President of the Confederate States of America -War of attrition with an underdog mentality -related the confederacy to the US and the US to Britain First Battle of Bull Run (Manasses) -Virginia in July 1961 first major battle -north was confident but had to run away because they lost -Disaster for the north Antietam -On northern territory -24000 died in one day -both sides lost -Lincoln decides to fire McClellan (northerners didn’t understand why) How the Union and Lincoln Prepared for War -Held a draft halfway through the war -Many rich people hired other people to serve for them -made income taxes -sold bonds, tariffs, borrowed money from money from other countries How the Confederacy and Davis prepared for war -South doesn’t have a strong gov -Davis struggles to get buy-in -Wealthy people didn’t want to contribute so most of the taxes fell on the middle class -Had to seize things from plantations by force -economy struggled Emancipation Proclamation -Abraham Lincoln did this to end slavery and save the union -slaves started escaping and joining Union troops when they were near -So many slaves were freed that the Union didn’t know what to do Battle of Vicksburg/General Ulysses S. Grant -Grant was not the general yet -Grant took Union ships and covered them in iron which worked -allowed grant to move eastward Significance of the Battle of Gettysburg -Took place in Gettysburg Pa. -As far as the North as the South ever got -The confederacy started to get pushed backward after this -end of the Confederate success Role of African American Soldiers At the start of the war, they were not allowed to help -end of the war became 10% of Union troops -Fought in segregated units but were enthusiastic about fighting -paid less than white soldiers Ulysses S. Grant’s War Strategies -Considered controversial techniques -Total war strategy -Willing to lose his own men's lives, throw them at the enemy -Since the North had more soldiers than the South he could do that Shenandoah CampaignThe goal was to not kill civilians but destroy everything but life -Sunandoah was close to N+S border -found civilians who were helping confederates ride into the north and did this to them. Election of 1864 -Lincoln didn’t think/wasn’t expected to win -switched his VP to a Southerner who was pro-union -George McClellan ran against him for revenge -General William Sherman captured Atlanta and burned it to the ground which was a positive surprise and led to lincolns reelection William T. Sherman’s March to the Sea -After burning down Atlanta he marched to the Atlantic and destroyed everything they came across -Didn’t destroy Savannah because it was too beautiful -After getting to the Atlantic they marched north to SC after still no surrender Appomattox Court House -Lee was still fighting with few soldiers and Grant sent him a message to surrender to save lives -They surrendered in the biggest house in town and Grant was very gracious during it -Grant was a little star-struck Lincolns Reconstriction Plan -General Ambassy (forgiveness) except for high-ranking officers -If 10% of the white men in the states took an oath of elegance the state could write a new state constitution and rejoin the union -Required the abolition of slavery Radical republicans -Republicans had a large amount of power -The” Wade-Davis Bill” included no Confederate unions that could return to power, in the state got. Couldn’t have anyone who rebelled in any way, the Republic Party would establish itself as a strong party in the South, protect former slaves -Lincoln pocket vetoes this, just ignored it Andrew Johnson Reconstriction Plan -VP to Lincoln and became president when Lincoln was assassinated -Oath of allegiance to return to the union -no high-ranking officials or wealthy plantation owners could become citizens -Would have to ratify the 13th to be reinstated -All property taken during the war would be returned, except for the slaves Black Codes -Discriminatory laws keeping AA’s in an inferior position -Couldn’t have slavery but could keep them incredibly low Freedmen's Bureau Bill -A bill Johnson Vetoed -Attempt to give land in the South to freed slaves 14th Amendment -Vetoed this civil rights bill -Gave African Americans citizenship -Johnson encouraged the South to not ratify it but it passed -South argued it didn’t mean African Americans could vote. Reconstriction of Act 1867 -Republicans had a 3/1 majority in the senate -Johnson vetoed but congress overode it -Troops to protect African Americans and enforce laws 1. Divide south into military districts 2.” supervise” new states constitution writing 3. Protect black men's right to vote Tenure of Office Act/Johnson impeachment -Congress passed this act to make it easier to impeach Johnson -Made it so the President couldn’t fire cabinet members without congressional approval -Johnson went to fire Edwin Stanton and many reporters were there so there was evidence -used to impeach Johnson, but he was not removed Election of 1868 -Ulysses S. Grant was a Republican with no political experience but was popular because of the war -Surrounded himself by good advisors -Ran under the “National Union Republican Party” -Wanted to help African Americans -Did not want to treat Confederate leaders harshly 15th Amendment -Gave African American men the right to vote -Congress made this a requirement to rejoin the union -Women thought they be included but they weren’t Sharecropping -Freed slaves would rent farming spots on plantations -Plantation owners loaned out supplies and animals and took advantage of their inability to read -Slaves had to spend all they made on rent and since they still had a loan with the supplies and animals they couldn’t leave legally Ku Klux Klan -Not allowed to be in the open so they wore sheets to conceal their identity -They tried to scare African Americans into what they believed to be their place -Other groups like this existed too Election of 1876/ Rutherford B. Hayes -Rutherford B. Hayes (R) Samuel Tildon (D) -Neither candidate got the majority but Tildon was one vote short -Republicans set up Bipartisan committee ti find election fraud -Decided there was fraud in SC, LA, and FL and gave those votes to Hayes who then won Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) Booker T. Washington's views on segregation (Accommodationists; Atlanta Compromise Adress) W.E.B Dubois’ views that disagreed with Washington

4. Re-enactment en performance

“’Other than the Projects, You stay Professional’: Colorblind Cops and the Enactment of Spatial Racism in Routine Policing”

American History Unit 4- (Mostly) Early English Enactments

Civics quiz 2 Canada's democracy has 3 __________ (roots) that give it its ___________ Foundation, Power Confederation The British North American colonies united as the Dominion of Canada in 1867 to address concerns like American annexation, trade expansion, and protecting French culture. Charlottetown Conference A meeting in 1864 where PEI, NS, NB discussed union, leading to the consideration of representation by population and a two-house Parliament for Canada. Quebec Conference An 1864 conference that laid out a blueprint for Confederation, addressing key issues like Quebec's status, division of power, equality among provinces, and the role of First Nations. Constitutional Monarchy A system where the monarch's powers are defined by a constitution, as seen in the BNA Act, where the British Monarch was the Head of State with powers transferred to representatives like the Governor General. House of Commons The lower house of Parliament in Canada, elected based on representation by population, with the party holding the most seats forming the government. Senate The upper house of Parliament in Canada, consisting of appointed regional representatives serving for life to provide a second look at legislation. Federal vs. Provincial Powers The BNA Act clearly delineated powers, with the federal government handling crucial matters like criminal law, defense, and foreign affairs, while provinces managed areas like education and health. Charter of Rights and Freedoms Enacted in 1982, this addition to the Canadian Constitution guarantees civil rights and liberties, allowing changes through the 7/50 formula and preventing unconstitutional laws. Unwritten Sources Elements of Canadian democracy not explicitly stated in the Constitution, including conventions, royal prerogatives, and unwritten principles. BNA Act The British North America Act, signed in 1867, served as Canada's Constitution, outlining the government structure, defining and limiting government powers, and enumerating citizen rights. What are the three foundations(roots) that give its power BNA act British North America Act The Charter of Rights and Freedom (1982): Unwritten Sources What are the 5 features of the BNA act IMAGE Constitutional monarchy: The House of Commons: The Senate: The Judicial System: Federal vs. Provincial Powers:

21.3 How Governments Enact Trade Policy and The Tradeoffs of Trade Policy

ETV that UK citizens can only be confident in their civil liberties are effectively protected if an entrenched British bill of rights is enacted (30 marks)

SOCY 200 Human Societies Study Guide Dr. Swann - 2024 Spring Final The test will be very similar in format to the midterm but with 5 or 10 more questions likely. I will discuss the format further during class. This is a guide, not an exhaustive list. Concepts •Inequality- Understand the prevalence and impact of inequality along gender, racial, and sexual lines Gender Inequality: Economic Disparities: Women often earn less than men for the same work and are disproportionately represented in lower-paying jobs and industries. Political Underrepresentation: Women are often underrepresented in politics and leadership positions, affecting policy decisions and societal norms. Social Expectations and Stereotypes: Gender norms and stereotypes can limit opportunities and reinforce unequal power dynamics. Racial Inequality: Wealth Gap: Historical discrimination and systemic barriers have resulted in significant wealth disparities between racial groups. Criminal Justice System: Racial minorities, especially Black and Latino individuals, are disproportionately affected by police violence, mass incarceration, and harsher sentencing. Education: Schools in predominantly minority communities often lack resources and face systemic biases, leading to unequal educational outcomes. Sexual Orientation and Identity: Legal Discrimination: In many places, LGBTQ+ individuals face legal discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and access to healthcare. Violence and Harassment: LGBTQ+ individuals are at a higher risk of experiencing violence, harassment, and discrimination, which can lead to mental health issues and social exclusion. Family Rights: Legal recognition and rights for same-sex couples and LGBTQ+ parents vary widely across regions, impacting their ability to access services and protections. •Media Influence- Understand the role and sphere of influence of the media o. How much do we consume and what do we consume o. What you watch affects your beliefs o. Trust in the media o. What the media shows/ discusses and what the media does not show/discuss How much do we consume and what do we consume: Media consumption has dramatically increased with the advent of digital technology and the internet. People spend significant amounts of time engaging with various forms of media, including television, radio, newspapers, websites, social media platforms, podcasts, and streaming services. The content consumed varies widely, ranging from news, entertainment, sports, educational material, to user-generated content. Preferences for specific types of content are influenced by individual interests, demographics, and cultural factors. What you watch affects your beliefs: Numerous studies have demonstrated the correlation between media exposure and beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The content we consume can shape our perceptions of the world, our understanding of social issues, and our attitudes towards different groups and cultures. Media representations of gender, race, ethnicity, and other social identities can influence stereotypes and perpetuate biases. Exposure to diverse and inclusive media can challenge these stereotypes and promote empathy and understanding. Trust in the media: Trust in traditional media sources has been declining in recent years, influenced by factors such as perceived bias, misinformation, sensationalism, and corporate ownership. Trust is crucial for the credibility and effectiveness of media organizations. Transparency, accuracy, accountability, and editorial independence are essential for building and maintaining trust with audiences. What the media shows/discusses and what the media does not show/discuss: Media outlets play a critical role in shaping public discourse by determining which issues receive attention and how they are framed. This process, known as agenda-setting, influences the public's perception of what is important and newsworthy. Media coverage can be influenced by various factors, including editorial priorities, commercial interests, political agendas, and audience preferences. Certain topics may receive extensive coverage, while others are overlooked or underreported. Media gatekeeping, where editors and producers decide which stories to prioritize, can contribute to the amplification or suppression of certain voices and perspectives. Lack of diversity in newsrooms can also lead to gaps in coverage and representation. •Social Media o. Impacts on society ▪Gen Z ▪Impacts on mental health •Specifically Gen Z Gen Z and Social Media: Gen Z is the first generation to grow up entirely in the digital age, making social media an integral part of their lives from a young age. Social media platforms serve as primary channels for communication, self-expression, entertainment, and socialization among Gen Z. They use platforms like Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat, and Twitter to connect with peers, share experiences, and explore their identities. Impact on Mental Health: Social media usage among Gen Z has been linked to various mental health challenges, including anxiety, depression, loneliness, and body image issues. Comparison: Social media often promotes unrealistic standards of beauty, success, and happiness, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem among Gen Z users who compare themselves to curated and filtered images and lifestyles. Cyberbullying: Gen Z faces increased risks of cyberbullying and online harassment through social media platforms, which can have devastating effects on their mental health and well-being. Fear of Missing Out (FOMO): Gen Z's constant exposure to their peers' activities and experiences on social media can exacerbate feelings of FOMO, anxiety, and social isolation. Digital Addiction: Excessive use of social media can contribute to digital addiction, where Gen Z individuals find it challenging to disconnect from their devices and prioritize offline activities, leading to sleep disturbances, concentration difficulties, and overall diminished well-being. Addressing Mental Health Challenges: Some efforts are underway to address mental health challenges associated with social media use among Gen Z: Digital literacy programs and mental health education initiatives aim to empower Gen Z with the skills to critically evaluate online content, recognize harmful behaviors, and seek support when needed. Mental health advocates and organizations collaborate with social media platforms to implement safety features, anti-bullying measures, and resources for mental health support. Increased awareness and destigmatization of mental health issues help Gen Z feel more comfortable seeking help and support from trusted adults, peers, and mental health professionals. o. Prevalence and ubiquity ▪How quickly adopted/became normative Prevalence and Ubiquity: Social media platforms have become ubiquitous in contemporary society, with billions of users worldwide across various demographics. These platforms facilitate instant communication, content sharing, and community building, fundamentally altering how people connect, share information, and engage with each other. The prevalence of social media is evident in its integration into daily life activities, including personal relationships, work, education, entertainment, and even activism. Speed of Adoption: The adoption of social media occurred rapidly, driven by advances in technology, the proliferation of internet access, and changing cultural norms. Platforms like Facebook, launched in 2004, experienced exponential growth, reaching millions of users within a few years. Similarly, Twitter (2006), Instagram (2010), and Snapchat (2011) gained widespread popularity relatively quickly. The advent of smartphones and mobile apps further accelerated social media adoption, enabling users to access platforms anytime, anywhere, and fostering continuous engagement. Normative Status: Social media has transitioned from a novelty to a normative aspect of contemporary life, influencing social norms, behaviors, and expectations. It's now considered customary for individuals, businesses, organizations, and even governments to maintain a presence on social media platforms to communicate, engage with stakeholders, and stay relevant. Social media usage is normalized across generations, with younger demographics, such as Gen Z, incorporating it seamlessly into their daily routines and identity formation processes. •Immigrants -Understand the labeling of different waves and generations of immigrants and what these labels entail o. Where do most immigrants come from o. Periods of internal migration in the US o. Deportation Labeling of Immigrant Waves and Generations: First Wave: Refers to the initial period of significant immigration to the United States, primarily from European countries during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This wave included immigrants from Ireland, Germany, Italy, and Eastern European countries. Second Wave: This term is often used to describe the period of immigration that occurred after restrictive immigration laws were lifted in the mid-20th century. It includes immigrants from Latin America, Asia, and other regions, driven by factors such as labor demand, family reunification, and political instability. Third Wave: Sometimes referred to as contemporary immigration, this wave encompasses recent immigration trends, characterized by globalization, advancements in transportation, and changes in immigration policies. It includes immigrants from diverse backgrounds, including Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. Where do most immigrants come from: Historically, immigrants to the United States have come from various regions around the world, depending on geopolitical events, economic conditions, and immigration policies. In recent years, the majority of immigrants to the United States have come from countries in Latin America, particularly Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, as well as from Asian countries such as China, India, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Periods of Internal Migration in the US: Internal migration within the United States has also played a significant role in shaping demographic patterns and regional development. Historical periods of internal migration include the westward expansion during the 19th century, the Great Migration of African Americans from the South to northern cities during the early to mid-20th century, and more recent trends of migration from rural to urban areas. Deportation: Deportation refers to the formal removal of immigrants from a country due to violations of immigration laws or other legal grounds. The United States has a long history of deportation, including periods of mass deportation, such as the Mexican Repatriation during the 1930s and the deportation of undocumented immigrants in recent years. Deportation policies and practices have been subject to debate and controversy, with concerns raised about due process, human rights, and the impact on families and communities. •Gender- Understand Socialized Gender Differences o. ‘Real’ differences between males and females ▪How those things play into the social construction of gender, gender stereotypes, and gender roles Biological Differences: Males and females do exhibit biological differences, including differences in reproductive anatomy, hormones, and certain physical characteristics. These differences are often related to reproductive functions and secondary sexual characteristics but do not fully account for the wide range of behaviors, traits, and capabilities exhibited by individuals of different genders. Social Construction of Gender: Gender is a socially constructed concept, meaning that the roles, behaviors, expectations, and identities associated with masculinity and femininity are shaped by cultural norms, beliefs, and institutions. Socialization begins at an early age and continues throughout life, with individuals learning and internalizing gender norms and expectations through interactions with family, peers, media, and other social institutions. Gender Stereotypes: Gender stereotypes are oversimplified, generalized beliefs about the characteristics, abilities, and behaviors of males and females. These stereotypes often perpetuate traditional notions of gender roles and reinforce inequality and discrimination. For example, stereotypes may dictate that males are assertive, strong, and rational, while females are nurturing, emotional, and submissive. These stereotypes can limit individuals' opportunities and perpetuate harmful gender norms. Gender Roles: Gender roles refer to the societal expectations and norms regarding the behaviors, responsibilities, and activities deemed appropriate for males and females. These roles can vary across cultures and historical contexts but often involve expectations related to caregiving, household duties, employment, and leadership. Gender roles are reinforced through socialization processes and institutions such as family, education, religion, and media, influencing individuals' self-concepts and behaviors. Interplay Between Biological and Social Factors: While biological differences may contribute to certain tendencies or predispositions, the social construction of gender significantly shapes how these differences are perceived, interpreted, and valued within society. For example, biological differences in strength or reproductive functions may influence the division of labor and social roles assigned to men and women, but societal expectations and cultural norms also play a crucial role in defining what is considered "appropriate" behavior for each gender. o. Understanding that most gendered differences are social ▪Leisure activities, desired jobs, self-care, willingness to ask for help, etc. Leisure Activities: Gender norms and expectations often influence the types of leisure activities individuals engage in. For example, sports may be more encouraged and accessible for boys, while girls may be steered towards activities perceived as more feminine, such as dance or art. These gendered leisure preferences can be shaped by socialization, media representations, peer influences, and parental expectations. Desired Jobs: Gender stereotypes and societal norms can influence individuals' career aspirations and choices. Certain professions may be seen as more suitable or desirable for men or women based on perceptions of gender roles and abilities. Women may face barriers or discouragement from pursuing careers in male-dominated fields such as STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), while men may encounter stigma or pressure for choosing traditionally female-dominated professions like nursing or teaching. Self-Care: Gendered expectations around self-care can impact how individuals prioritize their physical and emotional well-being. Women may be socialized to prioritize caregiving and nurturing roles, often at the expense of their own self-care needs. Men, on the other hand, may face societal pressures to prioritize stoicism and self-reliance, which can discourage seeking help for mental health issues or engaging in activities perceived as self-indulgent, such as therapy or self-care practices. Willingness to Ask for Help: Gender norms can influence individuals' attitudes towards seeking help and expressing vulnerability. Women may be socialized to be more comfortable seeking support and expressing emotions, while men may feel pressure to suppress vulnerability and handle challenges independently. These gendered expectations can impact help-seeking behaviors, mental health outcomes, and interpersonal relationships, contributing to disparities in access to support services and resources. o. Gender roles ▪Changing mom and dad roles •Women now expected to work •Increasing Age of 1st birth in America and across the world o. Explanations Changing Mom and Dad Roles: Traditionally, gender roles within families often assigned women the primary responsibility for caregiving and homemaking, while men were expected to be the primary breadwinners. However, societal shifts, including women's increasing education levels, workforce participation, and changing attitudes towards gender roles, have led to a reevaluation of these traditional roles. Women Expected to Work: Women's participation in the workforce has been steadily increasing over the past century, driven by factors such as economic necessity, greater educational opportunities, and changing social norms. As a result, women are no longer solely defined by their roles as caregivers and homemakers but are increasingly expected to pursue careers and contribute to household income. Increasing Age of First Birth: Across the United States and many other parts of the world, there has been a trend towards delaying the age of first birth. Several factors contribute to this trend, including: Education and Career Pursuits: As women pursue higher education and establish careers, they may delay starting a family to focus on personal and professional goals. Economic Factors: Financial stability and economic concerns play a significant role in family planning decisions. Many couples choose to delay having children until they feel financially secure. Access to Contraception and Family Planning Services: Increased access to contraception and family planning resources allows individuals more control over their reproductive choices, including when to have children. Cultural and Social Changes: Changing societal attitudes towards marriage, childbearing, and family dynamics also contribute to the trend of delaying parenthood. Explanations: The changing roles of moms and dads and the trend of delaying the age of first birth reflect broader shifts in societal norms, economic structures, and cultural expectations. These changes are driven by factors such as increased gender equality, greater access to education and career opportunities for women, and evolving attitudes towards family and parenthood. While these shifts represent progress towards more egalitarian and flexible gender roles, they also present challenges, including balancing work and family responsibilities, addressing childcare needs, and navigating societal expectations. •Decreasing family sizes across much of the world o. Hans Rosling Hans Rosling, a Swedish physician, academic, and statistician, was a prominent advocate for data-driven analysis and global health equity. He founded the Gapminder Foundation, which aims to promote a fact-based worldview through the innovative use of data visualization tools. Rosling's work often focused on challenging misconceptions and stereotypes about global development, population trends, and socio-economic disparities. One of the key topics he addressed was the phenomenon of decreasing family sizes across much of the world. Decreasing Family Sizes: Rosling emphasized that as societies undergo economic development and improvements in healthcare and education, fertility rates tend to decline. This decline in fertility rates is often attributed to factors such as increased access to contraception, higher levels of education for women, greater economic opportunities, and changes in cultural norms surrounding family planning. As families become more educated and economically stable, they often choose to have fewer children, prioritizing quality of life and investing more resources in each child's education and well-being. Rosling's work helped debunk myths and misconceptions about population growth, illustrating that global fertility rates were decreasing rather than increasing. He highlighted the importance of accurate data and evidence-based analysis in understanding complex global trends and informing policy decisions. o. Performing Gender o. F*g Discourse/ Self-policing ▪CJ Pascoe o. Changes in notions of gender ▪Specifically among Gen Z Performing gender refers to how individuals enact and express their gender identity through behaviors, appearances, and interactions, often influenced by societal norms and expectations. Here's an exploration of f*g discourse and self-policing, as well as changes in notions of gender, particularly among Gen Z: F*g Discourse/Self-policing: F*g discourse refers to derogatory language and derogatory labeling used to police and stigmatize individuals who deviate from traditional gender norms, particularly masculinity norms. CJ Pascoe, a sociologist, conducted research on masculinity and gender among adolescent boys, particularly focusing on how boys engage in f*g discourse and self-policing behaviors to assert and maintain their masculine identities. Pascoe's work highlighted how boys use homophobic language and behaviors to reinforce masculinity norms, establish social hierarchies, and police each other's gender performances. This self-policing can create pressure for conformity and marginalize individuals who do not conform to dominant gender expectations. Changes in Notions of Gender, Specifically Among Gen Z: Gen Z is often characterized by its greater openness and acceptance of diverse gender identities and expressions compared to previous generations. Gen Z individuals are more likely to challenge traditional binary notions of gender and embrace a spectrum of gender identities beyond the male-female binary. Social media and online communities have played a significant role in facilitating conversations around gender diversity and providing platforms for individuals to express their authentic selves. Gen Z's attitudes towards gender reflect broader cultural shifts towards greater acceptance and inclusivity, challenging stereotypes and norms that limit expression and self-discovery. •Race- Understand the social construction of race and historical narratives and changes o. Racial formation ▪Omi and Winant Racial Formation: Omi and Winant argue that race is not a fixed, biological category but rather a social construct that is continually produced and contested within specific historical and social contexts. They emphasize that race is a dynamic and relational concept, shaped by power dynamics, ideologies, institutions, and cultural representations. Racial formation involves the articulation of racial meanings, the institutionalization of racial practices, and the mobilization of racial groups in pursuit of their interests. Key Concepts: Racial Projects: Omi and Winant introduce the concept of racial projects, which are coordinated efforts by individuals, groups, and institutions to define and organize racial categories and relations. Racial projects can take various forms, including policies, laws, discourses, and cultural representations. Racialization: Racialization refers to the process through which social groups are categorized and marked by race, attributing certain characteristics, statuses, and meanings to them. Racialization can occur through explicit policies, implicit biases, and cultural stereotypes. Racial Formation Regimes: Omi and Winant analyze racial formation as a complex system of racial categories, hierarchies, and ideologies that shape social relations and institutions. Racial formation regimes encompass the historical and structural dimensions of racial dynamics within society. Historical Narratives and Changes: Omi and Winant's framework helps to understand the historical narratives and changes in racial dynamics in the United States and beyond. It highlights how racial categories and meanings have been constructed, contested, and transformed over time through processes of colonization, slavery, immigration, segregation, and globalization. For example, the shift from explicit forms of racial segregation to more subtle forms of racial inequality and discrimination reflects changes in racial formations and ideologies. Historical events such as the Civil Rights Movement, immigration waves, and globalization have also influenced racial formations, challenging existing racial hierarchies and identities while also generating new forms of racialization and social conflict. o. Racism ▪Implicit v explicit ▪Structural v personal Implicit vs. Explicit Racism: Explicit Racism: Explicit racism refers to overt, conscious expressions of racial prejudice and discrimination. This can include acts such as racial slurs, hate speech, hate crimes, and discriminatory practices based on race. Examples of explicit racism include racially motivated violence, discriminatory hiring practices, segregationist policies, and hate groups advocating for racial superiority. Implicit Racism: Implicit racism refers to unconscious biases, attitudes, and stereotypes that influence behavior and decision-making, often without individuals being aware of it. These biases can manifest in subtle ways, such as microaggressions, implicit biases in hiring and promotion decisions, and differential treatment based on race in various social contexts. Implicit racism can be perpetuated through cultural stereotypes, media representations, and socialization processes, leading to systemic inequalities and disparities. Structural vs. Personal Racism: Structural Racism: Structural racism refers to how societal institutions, policies, and practices perpetuate racial inequalities and disparities, often regardless of individual intent or prejudice. Structural racism operates at the systemic level, shaping access to resources, opportunities, and power based on race. It is embedded within social, political, economic, and cultural systems. Examples of structural racism include disparities in education, housing, healthcare, employment, criminal justice, and representation in positions of power. Personal Racism: Personal racism involves individual attitudes, beliefs, and actions that perpetuate racial prejudice, discrimination, and bias. This can include acts of overt discrimination, implicit biases, racial stereotypes, and microaggressions perpetrated by individuals in interpersonal interactions. While personal racism is often influenced by broader social structures and cultural norms, it operates at the level of individual behavior and attitudes. o. Inequality by race o. Criminal justice differences Inequality by race in the criminal justice system is a complex and longstanding issue that encompasses disparities at various stages of the criminal justice process. Here's an overview of some key aspects: 1. Policing: Racial profiling: Minority individuals, particularly Black and Hispanic individuals, are disproportionately targeted for stops, searches, and arrests by law enforcement agencies based on their race or ethnicity, rather than evidence of criminal activity. Use of force: Black individuals are more likely to experience police use of force, including deadly force, compared to their White counterparts, leading to higher rates of injury and death among Black communities. 2. Arrests and Charging: Disproportionate arrests: Black and Hispanic individuals are overrepresented in arrest statistics for various offenses, including drug-related offenses, despite similar rates of drug use across racial groups. Charging decisions: Studies have shown racial disparities in charging decisions, with Black and Hispanic individuals more likely to be charged with more serious offenses and face harsher penalties compared to White individuals for similar offenses. 3. Pretrial Detention and Bail: Pretrial detention: Black and Hispanic individuals are more likely to be detained pretrial and less likely to be released on bail compared to White individuals, leading to longer periods of incarceration before trial and increased pressure to plead guilty to avoid prolonged detention. Bail disparities: Racial and socioeconomic disparities in access to bail contribute to inequalities in pretrial detention, with minority and low-income individuals disproportionately affected. 4. Sentencing and Incarceration: Sentencing disparities: Black and Hispanic individuals are more likely to receive longer sentences compared to White individuals for similar offenses, contributing to racial disparities in incarceration rates. Mass incarceration: The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and racial minorities, particularly Black individuals, are disproportionately represented in the prison population. 5. Reentry and Recidivism: Reentry challenges: Upon release from incarceration, racial minorities face numerous barriers to successful reintegration into society, including limited access to employment, housing, education, and social support networks. Recidivism rates: Due to systemic inequalities and limited opportunities post-release, racial minorities are more likely to cycle in and out of the criminal justice system, perpetuating the cycle of incarceration and disadvantage. o. Between the world and me ▪Discussion questions ▪Thesis ▪TaNahesi Coates "Between the World and Me" by Ta-Nehisi Coates is a powerful exploration of race, identity, and the Black experience in America. Here are some discussion questions, the thesis of the book, and an overview of Ta-Nehisi Coates: Discussion Questions: How does Coates use personal narrative and historical analysis to convey his message about the experience of being Black in America? What role does fear play in shaping Coates' understanding of race and identity? How does he navigate and confront fear throughout the book? How does Coates critique the concept of the American Dream and the idea of progress in the context of racial inequality and injustice? What does Coates mean by "the Dream" and "the Dreamers," and how do these concepts shape his understanding of American society and its treatment of Black bodies? How does Coates grapple with the notion of hope in the face of systemic racism and violence against Black individuals and communities? How does Coates explore the relationship between the body, identity, and vulnerability in the context of racialized violence and oppression? Thesis: The central thesis of "Between the World and Me" revolves around Coates' exploration of the Black experience in America, particularly how systemic racism, violence, and structural inequality shape and define the lives of Black individuals. Coates argues that America's history of slavery, segregation, and ongoing racial injustice fundamentally contradicts the ideals of liberty and equality upon which the nation was founded. He presents a searing critique of the myth of the American Dream and calls attention to the pervasive fear and violence faced by Black bodies in American society. Ultimately, Coates urges readers to confront the harsh realities of race in America and to reckon with the legacy of white supremacy to work towards a more just and equitable society. Ta-Nehisi Coates: Ta-Nehisi Coates is an acclaimed writer, journalist, and educator known for his insightful commentary on race, politics, and culture in America. He has written for publications such as The Atlantic, where he gained widespread recognition for his essays on race, history, and social justice. Coates is also the author of several books, including "Between the World and Me," which won the National Book Award for Nonfiction in 2015, and "The Water Dancer," a novel exploring the legacy of slavery and the Underground Railroad. Coates' writing is characterized by its lyrical prose, meticulous research, and unflinching examination of the complexities of race and identity in America. He continues to be a prominent voice in conversations about race, history, and social justice, challenging readers to confront uncomfortable truths and envision a more equitable future. •Sexual Inequality- US beliefs about gay marriage In the United States, beliefs about gay marriage have evolved significantly over time, reflecting broader changes in societal attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights and equality. However, sexual inequality persists in various forms, including discrimination, stigma, and legal barriers faced by LGBTQ+ individuals, particularly in relation to marriage and family rights. Historical Context: Until relatively recently, same-sex marriage was widely stigmatized and prohibited by law in the United States. For much of the country's history, marriage was legally defined as a union between a man and a woman, excluding LGBTQ+ couples from the institution of marriage and its associated legal rights and benefits. Shift in Public Opinion: Over the past few decades, there has been a notable shift in public opinion regarding gay marriage. Increased visibility and advocacy efforts by LGBTQ+ individuals and allies have contributed to greater acceptance and support for marriage equality. Polls have consistently shown a growing majority of Americans in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage. Legalization and Recognition: In a landmark decision in 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that same-sex couples have the fundamental right to marry under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. This ruling legalized gay marriage nationwide, granting LGBTQ+ couples access to the same legal rights and benefits afforded to heterosexual couples. Persistent Challenges: Despite the legalization of same-sex marriage, sexual inequality persists in various forms. LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face discrimination, prejudice, and social stigma, which can impact their ability to freely express their identities and form relationships. Furthermore, legal protections for LGBTQ+ rights vary from state to state, and some states have enacted laws or policies that undermine marriage equality or allow for discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Intersectional Issues: Sexual inequality intersects with other forms of inequality, including race, gender identity, and socioeconomic status. LGBTQ+ individuals who belong to marginalized communities may face compounded discrimination and barriers to accessing marriage rights and other resources. Advocacy and Resistance: Advocacy efforts by LGBTQ+ activists and allies continue to challenge sexual inequality and push for greater recognition of LGBTQ+ rights, including marriage equality. However, resistance to LGBTQ+ rights persists in some quarters, leading to ongoing debates and legal battles over issues such as religious exemptions, adoption rights, and transgender rights. o. Income of LGBT people The income of LGBTQ+ people can vary widely depending on factors such as education, occupation, location, and other demographic characteristics. However, research indicates that LGBTQ+ individuals as a group may face economic disparities compared to their non-LGBTQ+ counterparts. Here are some key points regarding the income of LGBTQ+ people: Wage Gap: Studies have found evidence of a wage gap between LGBTQ+ individuals and their heterosexual counterparts. This wage gap can be attributed to various factors, including workplace discrimination, bias, and unequal opportunities for career advancement. Employment Discrimination: LGBTQ+ individuals may experience discrimination in the workplace, which can impact their ability to secure employment, earn promotions, or receive equal pay for equal work. Discriminatory practices based on sexual orientation or gender identity contribute to economic inequalities within the LGBTQ+ community. Intersectionality: The economic experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals are shaped by intersecting factors such as race, gender identity, and socioeconomic status. LGBTQ+ people who belong to marginalized groups may face compounded discrimination and economic hardship, further exacerbating income disparities. Access to Benefits: Prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States, many LGBTQ+ couples were denied access to spousal benefits such as health insurance, retirement benefits, and tax advantages. Even after marriage equality, disparities in access to benefits may persist for LGBTQ+ individuals who live in states without explicit protections for LGBTQ+ rights. Housing and Homelessness: LGBTQ+ youth are disproportionately represented among homeless populations, often as a result of family rejection or discrimination. Homelessness can have significant economic consequences, including limited access to stable employment and financial resources. Policy and Advocacy Efforts: Advocacy organizations and policymakers have called attention to economic disparities within the LGBTQ+ community and advocated for policies to address these inequalities. Efforts to combat workplace discrimination, expand access to benefits, and promote economic inclusion for LGBTQ+ individuals are ongoing. o. How many people are LGBTQ ▪Changing rates •Especially for Gen Z Population Estimates: Various surveys and studies have attempted to estimate the size of the LGBTQ+ population. These estimates typically range from a few percentage points to around 10% of the population, depending on the methodology and definitions used. Changing Rates: There is evidence to suggest that the proportion of people identifying as LGBTQ+ has been increasing over time, particularly among younger generations. This trend may be influenced by factors such as greater societal acceptance, increased visibility of LGBTQ+ individuals in media and popular culture, and evolving attitudes toward sexual orientation and gender identity. Generational Differences: Generation Z, consisting of individuals born roughly between the mid-1990s and early 2010s, is often characterized by greater openness and acceptance of LGBTQ+ identities compared to older generations. Surveys and studies have shown that Generation Z is more likely to identify as LGBTQ+ or express support for LGBTQ+ rights compared to previous generations. Social Factors: Changes in societal attitudes, legal protections, and cultural norms have contributed to greater acceptance and visibility of LGBTQ+ identities. As a result, more people may feel comfortable openly identifying as LGBTQ+ or exploring their sexual orientation and gender identity. Intersectionality: It's important to recognize that LGBTQ+ identities intersect with other aspects of identity, such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disability. Rates of LGBTQ+ identification and experiences of discrimination may vary within and across different demographic groups. o. Heterosexism o. Homophobia, hate crimes, and discrim Heterosexism refers to the belief in and promotion of heterosexuality as the norm or superior sexual orientation, while marginalizing or discriminating against other sexual orientations. This ideology can manifest in various ways, including homophobia, hate crimes, and discrimination. Here's a breakdown: Homophobia: This is an irrational fear, hatred, or discomfort toward individuals who are perceived as being gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender. Homophobia can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and violence against LGBTQ+ individuals. It may be fueled by ignorance, cultural norms, religious beliefs, or personal biases. Hate Crimes: Hate crimes are criminal acts motivated by bias or prejudice against a particular group, including LGBTQ+ individuals. These crimes can range from verbal harassment and physical assault to vandalism, sexual assault, or even murder. Hate crimes targeting LGBTQ+ individuals often stem from homophobia and transphobia and can have devastating effects on individuals and communities. Discrimination: LGBTQ+ individuals may face discrimination in various areas of life, including employment, housing, education, healthcare, and public accommodations. Heterosexism can manifest in policies, practices, and social attitudes that favor heterosexual individuals while disadvantaging or excluding LGBTQ+ individuals. Discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity is often illegal in many jurisdictions, but it still persists in many forms. •Sex- Frequency and patterns o. Difference in reporting o. Contemporary rates and patterns for Gen Z and Millennials o. Changes in dating and partnering Discussions around sex, its frequency, patterns, and changes in contemporary rates and patterns among different generations, particularly Gen Z (born roughly between the mid-to-late 1990s and early 2010s) and Millennials (born roughly between the early 1980s and mid-to-late 1990s), often involve several key points: Difference in Reporting: There's often a difference in how different generations report their sexual behaviors. For example, older generations may be more conservative or private about discussing their sexual activities, while younger generations, such as Gen Z, may be more open and transparent about their experiences, thanks in part to the normalization of discussions around sex in popular culture, social media, and the internet. Contemporary Rates and Patterns: Studies have shown that there are shifts in sexual behaviors and attitudes among younger generations compared to older ones. For instance, surveys suggest that Gen Z and Millennials may be having sex less frequently than previous generations did at the same age. Factors contributing to this trend may include increased access to technology, changing social norms around relationships and sexuality, and concerns about sexual health and consent. Changes in Dating and Partnering: With the rise of dating apps and online platforms, there have been significant changes in how people meet and form relationships. Gen Z and Millennials are more likely to meet potential partners online than through traditional means like mutual friends or social events. This shift has also led to changes in dating dynamics, with some research suggesting that younger generations are more likely to engage in casual relationships or hookups rather than long-term commitments. ▪Changes in sexual frequency Changes in sexual frequency refer to shifts or variations in how often individuals engage in sexual activity over time. Several factors can influence changes in sexual frequency, including societal norms, cultural attitudes toward sex, individual preferences, relationship dynamics, health considerations, and external stressors. Here are some key points regarding changes in sexual frequency: Generational Shifts: Research suggests that there have been generational differences in sexual frequency. For example, some studies indicate that younger generations, such as Millennials and Gen Z, may be having sex less frequently than previous generations did at the same age. This trend could be attributed to various factors, including increased use of technology, changes in dating practices, and shifting societal attitudes toward sex. Relationship Status: Changes in relationship status can impact sexual frequency. For example, individuals in long-term relationships or marriages may experience fluctuations in sexual activity over time due to factors such as work stress, family responsibilities, or changes in emotional intimacy. Conversely, individuals who are single or casually dating may have more variability in their sexual frequency depending on their social and dating experiences. Health Factors: Physical and mental health can influence sexual frequency. Health conditions, medications, hormonal changes, and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, or depression can affect libido and sexual desire, leading to changes in sexual activity levels. Additionally, experiences such as pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause can also impact sexual frequency for individuals and couples. Social and Cultural Factors: Societal norms, cultural attitudes, and media representations of sex can influence individuals' perceptions and behaviors regarding sexual activity. Changes in social norms around sexuality, gender roles, and relationship dynamics may contribute to shifts in sexual frequency among different demographic groups. Technological Influence: The widespread availability of digital media and online platforms has reshaped how people connect and interact, including in the realm of sexuality. The rise of social media, dating apps, and online pornography may impact sexual behaviors and attitudes, potentially affecting sexual frequency among different populations. Vocabulary •Biological Notions Of Race Biological notions of race refer to perspectives that view race as a biological or genetic category, often emphasizing physical differences among human populations. These perspectives typically posit that there are distinct and significant biological differences between racial groups, such as variations in genetic makeup, physiology, or disease susceptibility. •Social Construct A social construct refers to a concept or idea that is created and defined by society, rather than being inherent to the natural world. These constructs are shaped by social, cultural, historical, and political factors, and they vary across different societies and contexts. Social constructs are often accepted as reality by members of a society, influencing beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and social interactions. •Social Construction Of Race The social construction of race refers to the process by which societal beliefs, categories, and meanings about race are created, shaped, and perpetuated within a particular cultural and historical context. Unlike biological notions of race, which posit that race is a fixed and objective category based on physical or genetic differences, the social constructionist perspective emphasizes that race is a product of social, cultural, and political forces rather than biological reality. •Racial Formation Theory Racial Formation Theory, developed by sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant in the late 20th century, is a conceptual framework that seeks to understand how race and racial categories are socially constructed and transformed over time. The theory emphasizes the dynamic and contingent nature of race, highlighting how racial identities, meanings, and hierarchies are produced, contested, and reconfigured within specific historical and social contexts. •Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to the cultural, social, and sometimes biological characteristics that distinguish one group of people from another. It is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses shared ancestry, language, religion, customs, traditions, and other cultural practices. Unlike race, which is often understood in terms of physical or biological traits, ethnicity is primarily based on cultural affiliation and identification. •Globalization Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of societies and economies around the world. It involves the exchange of goods, services, information, technology, culture, and ideas on a global scale, leading to the integration of economies and societies into a single global system. Key aspects of globalization include: •Immigration o. Legal (Voluntary) o. Illegal (Voluntary) o. Forced Immigration refers to the act of individuals or groups moving from one country to another to reside there permanently or temporarily. Immigration can occur for various reasons, including economic opportunities, family reunification, seeking asylum or refuge, or fleeing persecution, conflict, or environmental disasters. There are three broad categories of immigration: Legal Immigration (Voluntary): Legal immigration occurs when individuals enter a country with the proper authorization and documentation, such as visas, work permits, or residency permits. This type of immigration is voluntary and typically follows established immigration laws and regulations of the destination country. Legal immigrants often come to pursue education, and work opportunities, join family members, or seek refuge through legal channels. Illegal Immigration (Voluntary): Illegal immigration, also known as undocumented or irregular migration, refers to the movement of individuals across national borders without proper authorization or documentation under the destination country's immigration laws. This type of immigration is voluntary but violates the immigration laws of the destination country. Reasons for illegal immigration may include economic factors, lack of legal pathways for migration, family reunification, or fleeing violence or persecution. Illegal immigrants often face risks such as exploitation, deportation, detention, and limited access to essential services. Forced Immigration: Forced immigration occurs when individuals are compelled to leave their home countries against their will due to persecution, conflict, environmental disasters, or other circumstances that threaten their safety, security, or well-being. This type of immigration is involuntary and may involve refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons (IDPs), or victims of human trafficking. Forced immigrants often seek protection and assistance from international organizations, such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and may eventually be resettled in a third country or return home when conditions improve. •Emigration Emigration refers to the act of individuals or groups leaving their country of origin to settle in another country. It involves the permanent or long-term relocation of people from their home country to a new destination. Emigration is the opposite of immigration, which involves individuals or groups entering a new country to reside there. •Refugee (as defined by the US) In the United States, a refugee is defined as a person who is outside their country of nationality or habitual residence due to a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, and who is unable or unwilling to return to that country. Refugees are granted legal protection and assistance under international law, including the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, to which the United States is a signatory. To be recognized as a refugee in the United States, individuals must undergo a thorough screening process conducted by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) or the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), depending on the circumstances. This process involves interviews, background checks, and verification of the individual's refugee status. Once granted refugee status, individuals may be eligible for resettlement in the United States, where they receive assistance with housing, employment, education, and other services to help them rebuild their lives. Refugees differ from other categories of migrants, such as immigrants and asylum seekers, in that they have been forced to flee their home countries due to persecution or violence and are unable to return safely. As such, they are afforded specific legal protections and rights under international and domestic law. •Remittance Remittance refers to the transfer of money or other assets by a person living and working in one country to their family or others residing in their country of origin. It is a vital source of financial support for many families in developing countries, where remittances often constitute a significant portion of the national income. Remittances can be sent through various channels, including banks, money transfer operators (MTOs), online platforms, and informal channels such as friends or relatives carrying cash. The funds sent as remittances are typically used by recipients to cover essential expenses such as food, housing, education, healthcare, and investments in small businesses or agriculture. Remittances play a crucial role in poverty reduction and economic development in recipient countries, providing a lifeline for millions of households and contributing to local economies through increased consumption and investment. Additionally, remittances can help reduce inequality by redistributing wealth from higher-income countries to lower-income countries. For many migrants, sending remittances is a way to fulfill their financial obligations to their families and communities back home and to support their loved ones' well-being and aspirations. Governments and international organizations often support policies and initiatives aimed at facilitating remittance flows, reducing transfer costs, and promoting financial inclusion among migrant populations. •Model Minority The term "model minority" refers to a demographic group, typically an ethnic or racial minority, that is perceived as achieving a higher degree of socioeconomic success than the population average. This term is often applied to Asian Americans in the United States, but it can also be used to describe other groups in various countries. Characteristics commonly associated with the model minority stereotype include high levels of educational attainment, strong work ethic, stable family structures, and economic success. The model minority stereotype suggests that members of these groups have overcome discrimination and adversity through hard work, perseverance, and adherence to cultural values such as emphasis on education and strong family ties. •Assimilation o. Downward Assimilation Assimilation is a process through which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms, values, and behaviors of the dominant society. It involves the integration of minority or immigrant groups into the mainstream culture of a society. Assimilation can occur voluntarily as individuals or groups seek to adapt to their new environment, or it can be enforced through social, economic, or political pressures. Downward assimilation refers to a situation in which individuals or groups adopt the norms and values of a lower socioeconomic status group rather than those of the dominant society. This can occur when individuals or groups face barriers to upward mobility or experience discrimination and marginalization within the dominant culture. Downward assimilation may involve adopting behaviors, attitudes, or lifestyles associated with poverty or social disadvantage. Downward assimilation can be a response to socioeconomic inequality, limited opportunities for social mobility, or experiences of discrimination and marginalization. It may also reflect a sense of alienation or disconnection from the dominant culture, leading individuals or groups to identify more closely with subcultures or communities that share similar experiences or values. While assimilation is often seen as a way for immigrants or minority groups to achieve social and economic success in their new society, downward assimilation highlights the complexities and challenges that individuals or groups may face in the process of integration. It underscores the importance of addressing structural inequalities and promoting social inclusion to ensure that all members of society have equal opportunities to thrive. •Paradigm o. Paradigm Shift A paradigm is a set of beliefs, assumptions, and practices that define how a particular discipline or field of study approaches problems and generates knowledge. It serves as a framework for understanding and interpreting phenomena within that discipline. A paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the basic assumptions, concepts, and practices of a scientific or intellectual framework. It occurs when new discoveries, theories, or perspectives challenge the existing paradigm and lead to a reevaluation of fundamental concepts and methods. •Gender Gender refers to the social, cultural, and behavioral characteristics, roles, and expectations that societies attribute to individuals based on their perceived sex. While sex typically refers to biological differences, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive anatomy, gender encompasses a broader range of characteristics and identities. •Gender Expression Gender expression refers to the outward manifestation of an individual's gender identity, typically through behavior, clothing, hairstyle, voice, or other aspects of appearance and presentation. It encompasses the ways in which individuals express their gender to others and may include both intentional and unintentional cues that communicate aspects of their gender identity. •Gender Identity Gender identity refers to a person's deeply-felt internal sense of their own gender, which may be male, female, a blend of both, or neither. It is an intrinsic aspect of individual identity and may or may not correspond with the sex assigned to them at birth. Gender identity is distinct from biological sex, which is typically assigned based on physical characteristics such as anatomy and chromosomes. •Sexual Identity Sexual identity refers to an individual's enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction, as well as their sense of self in relation to that attraction. It encompasses the internal understanding of one's sexual orientation and may include categories such as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, asexual, and more. •Sexuality Sexuality refers to the complex interplay of biological, psychological, social, cultural, and emotional factors that shape an individual's experience of their sexual desires, attractions, behaviors, and relationships. It encompasses a wide range of dimensions, including but not limited to: •Sex Sex, in the context of human behavior and relationships, refers to a broad range of physical, emotional, and social aspects related to sexual activity, attraction, and expression. •Self-policing Self-policing refers to the practice of individuals or groups regulating their own behavior, actions, or attitudes according to internal standards, values, or norms, rather than relying solely on external laws, rules, or authorities for guidance or enforcement. It involves taking personal responsibility for one's actions and adhering to ethical principles or social expectations without the need for external coercion or supervision. •Gender Queer Genderqueer is a term used to describe individuals whose gender identity does not conform to traditional binary notions of male and female. Genderqueer people may identify as a blend of both genders, as neither exclusively male nor female, or as a different gender entirely. They may reject the idea of fixed gender categories altogether and view gender as fluid and non-binary. •Gender Binary The gender binary refers to the classification of gender into two distinct and opposite categories: male and female. It's a cultural, societal, and often institutional framework that assumes there are only two genders, each associated with specific roles, behaviors, attributes, and expectations. This binary understanding of gender typically aligns with biological sex assigned at birth, where individuals are categorized as either male or female based on physical characteristics such as genitalia and chromosomes. •Man Box o. Tony Porter The "Man Box" is a concept popularized by Tony Porter, an activist and educator known for his work in promoting healthy, respectful, and equitable notions of masculinity. The term refers to a set of societal expectations, norms, and stereotypes that prescribe how men should behave, think, and feel. These expectations are often rigid and restrictive, dictating that men should conform to certain ideals of masculinity while suppressing traits or behaviors that are perceived as feminine or weak. •Hierarchy Hierarchy refers to a system or structure in which people or groups are ranked according to their status, authority, or importance relative to one another. It often involves a vertical arrangement, with individuals or entities positioned at different levels based on criteria such as power, wealth, social class, or organizational position. •Ascribed Identity An ascribed identity is a social identity that is assigned to an individual based on characteristics such as age, race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status, over which the individual may have little or no control. These identities are typically attributed to individuals at birth or early in life and are often based on external factors such as physical appearance, family background, or cultural heritage. •Achieved Identity An achieved identity is a social identity that an individual acquires through their own actions, efforts, choices, and accomplishments. Unlike ascribed identities, which are assigned to individuals based on factors such as race, gender, or socioeconomic status, achieved identities are developed over time through personal agency and interaction with one's environment. •Queer Theory o. A conflict theory where the conflict is the level of patriarchy o. Judith Butler Queer theory is a theoretical framework within gender studies and sociology that challenges traditional understandings of gender and sexuality. Developed primarily in the late 20th century, queer theory emerged as a response to the limitations of earlier feminist and gay/lesbian theories, which tended to essentialize gender and sexual identities. At its core, queer theory seeks to deconstruct binary categories such as male/female and gay/straight, as well as the norms and power structures associated with them. It questions the idea of fixed, natural, or essential identities, arguing instead that identities are fluid, socially constructed, and context-dependent. •Homophobia Homophobia refers to a range of negative attitudes, feelings, and behaviors directed towards individuals who are perceived to be gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT), as well as towards same-sex relationships or behaviors. It encompasses prejudice, discrimination, and hostility based on a person's sexual orientation or gender identity. •Heterosexism Heterosexism refers to the belief in and privileging of heterosexuality as the normative and superior sexual orientation, while marginalizing and stigmatizing non-heterosexual identities. It operates on the assumption that heterosexuality is the only natural or acceptable form of sexual orientation, leading to discrimination, prejudice, and the exclusion of LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other non-heterosexual or non-cisgender) individuals. •Culture Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions, language, symbols, and practices that are learned and transmitted within a particular social group or community. It shapes individuals' identities, behaviors, and worldviews, influencing how people perceive themselves and others, interact with one another, and interpret the world around them. •FCC The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States government that regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. It was established by the Communications Act of 1934 and is charged with overseeing various aspects of telecommunications and broadcasting to ensure the public interest is served. •Fairness Doctrine o. Repeal of and effects of repeal The Fairness Doctrine was a policy introduced by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1949 to ensure that broadcasters presented balanced and fair coverage of controversial issues. It required broadcasters to devote airtime to discussing contrasting views on matters of public importance and to provide an opportunity for opposing viewpoints to be heard. Key points about the Fairness Doctrine include: Intent: The Fairness Doctrine aimed to promote the public interest by ensuring that the public had access to a diverse range of viewpoints on important issues. It was based on the principle that broadcasters, who held licenses to use the public airwaves, had an obligation to serve the public interest. Requirements: Under the Fairness Doctrine, broadcasters were required to cover controversial issues of public importance and to provide reasonable opportunities for contrasting viewpoints to be presented. This often meant offering airtime to individuals or groups with differing perspectives on the issue being discussed. Implementation: The Fairness Doctrine was enforced through FCC regulations, and broadcasters found to be in violation of the doctrine could face penalties, including the potential loss of their broadcast licenses. Repeal: The Fairness Doctrine came under increasing criticism in the 1980s from both conservative and liberal groups, who argued that it infringed on broadcasters' First Amendment rights and stifled free speech. In 1987, the FCC under Chairman Dennis R. Patrick abolished the Fairness Doctrine, citing changes in the media landscape, including the rise of cable television and the growth of alternative sources of information. Effects of Repeal: The repeal of the Fairness Doctrine led to significant changes in the media environment, particularly in talk radio and television news. Without the requirement to provide balanced coverage of controversial issues, broadcasters had more freedom to air programming reflecting a particular ideological viewpoint, leading to the rise of opinion-driven, partisan media outlets. Some critics argue that the repeal contributed to increased polarization and the spread of misinformation in the media landscape. •Propaganda Propaganda refers to information, ideas, or messages spread with the intention of influencing people's opinions, beliefs, or actions in a particular direction, often to promote a specific agenda or ideology. It can take various forms, including written or spoken communication, images, videos, and other media formats. •Media conglomeration (Also called Media Consolidation) Media conglomeration, also known as media consolidation, refers to the process by which ownership and control of media companies become concentrated in the hands of a few large corporations or conglomerates. This trend has been increasingly prominent in the media industry, particularly in recent decades, driven by factors such as deregulation, technological advancements, and the pursuit of economies of scale. •Vertical integration Vertical integration is a business strategy in which a company extends its operations along the supply chain by acquiring or merging with companies that are involved in different stages of the production process. Rather than just focusing on one aspect of production, such as manufacturing or distribution, a vertically integrated company controls multiple stages of the supply chain, from raw materials to the final product or service delivered to the customer. •Horizontal integration Horizontal integration is a business strategy in which a company expands its presence in the same stage of the production process or industry value chain by acquiring or merging with competitors or companies operating in the same industry. Unlike vertical integration, which involves expanding into different stages of the production process (such as upstream suppliers or downstream distribution channels), horizontal integration focuses on consolidating firms that operate at the same level of the value chain. •Monopoly A monopoly is a market structure characterized by a single seller dominating the entire market for a particular product or service. In a monopoly, the single seller faces no competition, giving it significant control over the price and quantity of goods or services sold. Monopolies can arise due to various factors, including barriers to entry, economies of scale, control over essential resources, or government regulations. •Mass Media Mass media refers to various forms of communication that reach large audiences simultaneously. These channels include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the internet. Mass media play a crucial role in shaping public opinion, disseminating information, influencing social norms, and facilitating cultural exchange on a global scale. •Mainstream Media Mainstream media refers to large-scale, widely recognized media outlets that reach a broad audience and typically adhere to established journalistic practices and professional standards. These media organizations include newspapers, television networks, radio stations, magazines, and online news websites that are well-known and widely consumed by the general public. •Independent Media Independent media refers to media outlets that operate free from corporate or government influence and are often characterized by their commitment to journalistic integrity, editorial independence, and diverse perspectives. Unlike mainstream media, which may be owned by large corporations or conglomerates and subject to commercial pressures, independent media organizations prioritize principles such as transparency, accountability, and serving the public interest. •Social Media Social media refers to online platforms and services that allow users to create, share, and interact with content and other users in virtual communities. These platforms enable individuals and groups to connect, communicate, collaborate, and engage with each other in various forms of digital interaction. Social media has become an integral part of modern communication, influencing how people connect, consume information, and participate in social, cultural, and political activities. •Media Literacy Media literacy refers to the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and critically interpret various forms of media content, including print, broadcast, digital, and social media. It involves understanding how media messages are created, disseminated, and consumed, as well as recognizing the influence of media on individuals, society, and culture. Media literacy empowers individuals to become informed, discerning, and responsible media consumers and creators by developing essential skills and competencies related to media literacy include: •Digital Divide The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to digital technologies, such as computers, smartphones, and the internet, and those who do not. This gap can exist within and between countries, regions, communities, socioeconomic groups, and demographic populations. The digital divide encompasses disparities in access to digital infrastructure, connectivity, devices, skills, and digital literacy, which can hinder individuals' ability to participate fully in the digital age and benefit from the opportunities offered by digital technologies. •Internet Addiction Internet addiction, also known as problematic internet use or internet gaming disorder, refers to excessive, compulsive, and uncontrollable use of the internet, leading to negative consequences in various areas of an individual's life, including personal, social, academic, and occupational functioning. It is characterized by a preoccupation with internet activities, loss of control over internet use, withdrawal symptoms when internet access is restricted, and continued use despite experiencing adverse effects. •Demography Demography is the scientific study of human populations, including their size, structure, distribution, composition, and dynamics over time. It encompasses a wide range of topics related to population dynamics, such as birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, fertility rates, age distribution, and demographic trends. •Overpopulation Overpopulation refers to a situation where the number of people in a given area exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment, leading to various negative consequences. It is typically characterized by an imbalance between the human population and the available resources and infrastructure needed to support it sustainably. •Flattening "Flattening" can refer to several concepts depending on the context: Flattening the Curve: In the context of public health, "flattening the curve" refers to efforts to slow the spread of a contagious disease, such as COVID-19, in order to reduce the peak number of cases and prevent overwhelming healthcare systems. This is typically achieved through measures such as social distancing, mask-wearing, hand hygiene, quarantine, and vaccination. Flattening the Organization: In business or management contexts, "flattening the organization" refers to reducing hierarchical layers or levels within a company or institution. This can involve decentralizing decision-making, empowering employees, streamlining communication channels, and eliminating unnecessary bureaucracy in order to increase efficiency, responsiveness, and innovation. Flattening the Earth: In the context of globalization and technology, "flattening the earth" is a concept popularized by Thomas Friedman in his book "The World is Flat." It refers to the leveling effect of globalization and digital technology, which has enabled greater connectivity, communication, and competition on a global scale. This has led to increased interconnectedness, economic integration, and cultural exchange among people and nations •Urbanization o. Overurbanization Urbanization refers to the process by which an increasing proportion of a population migrates from rural to urban areas, resulting in the growth of cities and towns. This phenomenon is typically driven by factors such as industrialization, economic development, job opportunities, better infrastructure, and improved living standards in urban areas. Overurbanization, on the other hand, refers to a situation where urban growth outpaces the capacity of infrastructure, resources, and services to support it. This can lead to various challenges and problems, including overcrowding, inadequate housing, traffic congestion, pollution, strained public services, and social inequalities. Overurbanization often occurs in developing countries where urbanization is rapid and unplanned, resulting in slums, informal settlements, and other urban problems. Efforts to address overurbanization typically involve urban planning, infrastructure development, social programs, and policies to promote sustainable urban growth and improve living conditions for urban residents. •Gentrification Gentrification is a process of urban development whereby previously neglected or economically disadvantaged neighborhoods undergo revitalization, typically resulting in an influx of wealthier residents and businesses. This transformation often leads to increased property values, improved infrastructure, and cultural changes in the area. •Separation of Spheres o. Peak of rigidly defined gender roles in American and other developed countries The peak of rigidly defined gender roles in American and other developed countries is typically associated with the mid-20th century, particularly in the post-World War II era up until the 1960s. During this time, there was a strong societal emphasis on traditional gender norms, with distinct expectations and roles for men and women. ▪1950’s The 1950s in the United States is often characterized as a period of post-World War II prosperity and cultural conservatism. Here are some key aspects of the 1950s: Economic Boom: The 1950s saw significant economic growth in the United States, fueled by the post-war industrial boom. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age of Capitalism" or the "Economic Miracle." The GI Bill provided educational and housing benefits to returning veterans, contributing to a rise in homeownership and the expansion of the middle class. Suburbanization: The 1950s witnessed a mass migration of Americans from cities to suburbs. Suburbanization was driven by factors such as the availability of affordable housing, government subsidies for suburban development, and the desire for a more peaceful and family-oriented lifestyle. Levittown, New York, became a symbol of suburban expansion with its mass-produced, affordable housing developments. Baby Boom: The post-war period also saw a significant increase in birth rates, known as the "baby boom." Returning servicemen started families, leading to a surge in childbirth rates that lasted throughout the 1950s. Cultural Conservatism: The 1950s is often depicted as a time of cultural conformity and conservatism. Traditional gender roles were reinforced, with men as breadwinners and women as homemakers. The nuclear family model, consisting of a husband, wife, and children, was idealized. Cold War Era: The 1950s were marked by the height of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The fear of communism led to anti-communist hysteria and the rise of McCarthyism, characterized by investigations into alleged communist influence in American society. Civil Rights Movement: The 1950s laid the groundwork for the civil rights movement, which sought to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. Landmark events such as the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision (1954) and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) set the stage for the activism of the 1960s. Popular Culture: The 1950s saw the rise of television as a dominant form of entertainment, with shows like "I Love Lucy," "The Ed Sullivan Show," and "Leave It to Beaver" capturing the imagination of American audiences. Rock and roll music also emerged as a powerful cultural force, with artists like Elvis Presley revolutionizing the music industry. •I-gen "I-Gen" is a term sometimes used to refer to the generation of individuals born between the mid-to-late 1990s and the mid-2010s. This generation is also commonly known as Generation Z or Gen Z. The prefix "i" may stand for various things, including "internet," "individualistic," or "information," reflecting the generation's relationship with technology and their status as digital natives. o. Jean Twenge Jean Twenge is a psychologist and author known for her research on generational differences, particularly focusing on the characteristics and behaviors of millennials and Generation Z. She has written several books on the subject, including "Generation Me" and "iGen: Why Today's Super-Connected Kids Are Growing Up Less Rebellious, More Tolerant, Less Happy — and Completely Unprepared for Adulthood." Twenge's work often explores how cultural and societal factors, such as technology, parenting styles, and economic conditions, influence the attitudes and behaviors of different generations. She has conducted extensive research using large-scale surveys to identify trends and patterns in generational shifts, drawing attention to changes in areas such as mental health, self-esteem, and social relationships. While Twenge's research has garnered attention for highlighting some of the challenges and concerns associated with younger generations, such as increased rates of anxiety and depression, her work has also sparked debate and criticism within the field of psychology and sociology. Some scholars have questioned the generalizations made about entire generations and the potential oversimplification of complex societal phenomena. Nonetheless, Twenge's work continues to be influential in discussions about generational differences and the impact of cultural change on individuals' lives. REFRESH ON Sociological imagination, Sociological perspectives, 7 up films

A wide area of parks of undeveloped land surrounding a community@Greenbelt The process in which a piece of land, referred to as the parent tract, is subdivided into Platting two or more parcels.@Platting Angles measured clockwise from any meridian, usually north; however, the National Geodetic Survey uses south@Azimuths Usually the last stage of the final site development process prior to issuance of building permit@Final Plat A 20th century problem emanating from rapid urbanization of areas surrounding a city which eats up the remaining adjacent rural open spaces@Urban Sprawl A type of planning which emphasizes that the proper role of the planner is not to serve the general public interest but rather to serve the interests of the least fortunate or least well represented groups in society@Advocacy Planning In the Philippines, this type of land use planning emphasizes the proper management of land resources to ensure that the present generation can benefit from its continued use without compromising future generations@Sustainable Land Use Planning This code mandates that all Local Government Units shall prepare their comprehensive@Local Government Code, 1991 land use plans and enact them through zoning ordinances@R.A. 7160 Reason for planning.@Promote Human Growth Phrase used to characterize development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generations.@Sustainable Development First Planner and developed the Gridiron@Hippodamus of miletus A locale with a sizeable agglomeration of people having characteristics of an urban being.@City The main reason why the nomadic existence of early man metamorphosed to village settlement and later to the birth of cities@Agricultural Surplus The rough equivalent of the present tenement cities that existed in ancient Rome, which resulted from the population growth of the city and the congestion that existed in streets@Insula In urban geography, a concept where urban settlement is confined to the area within the legal limits of the city and the congestion and virtually all of this area is occupied by urban residents.@Truebounded City A Land Development Decision is also what kind of decision.@Traffic The orderly arrangement of urban streets and public spaces@City Planning He conceptualized the 'City Beautiful Movement'.@Daniel Burnham A tool used to control the manner in which raw kind is subdivided and placed on the marker for residential development@Subdivision Regulations A profession which falls between planning and architecture. It deals with the large-scale organization and design of the city, with the massing and organization and the space between them, but not with the design of the individual buildings@Urban Design The science of human settlement@Ekistics By definition, settlement inhabited by man@Human Settlement Planning for roads, bridges, schools, parking structures, pubic buildings, water supply, and waste disposal facilities@Capital Facilities Planning The container of man, which consists of both the natural and man-made or artificial element.@Physical Settlement A spatial organization concept a general view of the pattern of land use in a city developed by Ernest W. Burgess. The city is conceived as a series of five concentric zones with the cores as the central business district and fanning out from which are the residential and commuter zones.@Concentric Zone Concept The remaining space in a lot after deducting the required minimum open spaces@Buildable Area A habitable room for 1 family only with facilities for living, sleeping, cooking, and eating.@Dwelling Unit This is a type of a retaining wall made of rectangular baskets made of galvanized steel wire or pvc coated wire hexagonal mesh which are filled with stones to form a wall.@Gabion Wall A very steep slope of rock or clay.@Cliff A piece of grassy land, especially one used for growing hay or as pasture for grazing Meadow animals; low grassy land near a river or stream.@Meadow A long, narrow chain of hills or mountains@Ridge A long, deep, narrow valley eroded by running water@Ravine On land, an encumbrance limiting its use, usually imposed for community or mutual protection.@Restriction Of land, a contiguous land area which is considered as a unit, which is subject to a single ownership, and which is legally recorded as a single piece@Parcel A wall that serves 2 dwelling units, known also as party wall.@Common Wall Niemeyer believed that relating large areas to each other is freedom as in the planned city of___.@Brasilia In architectural terms, it is the relationship of the number of residential structures and Density people to a given amount of space.@Density The government arm responsible for the development and implementation of low cost housing in the Philippines@National Shelter Program Housing provided for low-income groups generally through government intervention and characterized by substantial subsidies and direct assistance.@Social Housing A written agreement between parties, but it allows a specific period during which the buyer can investigate the property and make a decision@Option to Buy Sometimes called "subscription money", this is a deposit given to the seller to show that Earnest Money the potential buyer has serious intentions@Earnest Money A provision made in advance for the gradual liquidation of a future obligation by periodic charges against the capital account@Amortization Written document to transfer the property to one person to another@Deed They develop or improve the land as well as construct houses@Developers Determines the value of the house and also is familiar with trends in the local market and in the industry.@Appraiser Helps people find a place to live, specializing and matching wants of buyers with the local supply.@Real Estate Broker Are usually large concrete slabs or otherwise panelized units fabricated in a shop and assembled at the site.@Total System Codes that deal with the use, occupancy, and maintenance of existing buildings@Housing Codes Designed to regulate land use, to ban industry and commerce from residential areas and to separate different types of living units@Zoning Construct three-dimensional volumetric units in a plant on a production line then hauled to the site@Prefabrication Manufacturer System building is the complete integration of all ___.@Subsystems The improvement of slum, deteriorated, and underutilized areas of a city.@Urban Renewal An area which is within the city limits, or closely linked to it by common use of public utilities and services.@Urban Area Two major hindrances to the prefabrication industry.@Code of Multiplicities and Tradition Three general types of structures.@Primitive Vernacular Grand A piece of land with an economic use for farming.@Productive Use Lands for well-being like parks, plazas, and of similar nature@Health and General Use Similarly as the cost of the land, neighborhood character have this effect@Social Implications Minimum road width in a neighborhood development to ease traffic flow@6.00 mts Which building component receives priority over the location to have the morning sun.@Bedrooms Urban Planning is defined briefly as the guidance of ___.@Growth and Change A lattice structure that serves as a summer house.@Gazebo In landscaping, ground cover is represented by ___.@Grass and Plants The art of arranging buildings and other structures in harmony with the landscape@Site Planning The study of the dynamic relationship between a community of organisms and its habitat.@Ecology Preparations of an accurate base map for urban planning starts with ___.@Accurate Aerial Mosaic Appraisal of adequacy of a city's water and sewer systems needs of future land uses are embodied in the ___.@Comprehensive Plan Also called the blood-stream of a city@Transportation System A form of absence of all the principles and organized development of a community.@Urban Blight The city of Washington conforms to the plan type of ___.@Star An efficient and rapid transport system for automobiles to circulate across urban to urban areas.@Freeways A monument, fixed object, or marker used to designate the location of a land boundary on the ground.@Landmark A narrow passageway bordered by trees, fences, or other lateral barrier@Lane The projection of a future pattern of use within an area, as determined by development goals@Land-use Plan The part of the surface of the earth not permanently covered by water.@Land A line of demarcation between adjoining parcels of land.@Land Boundary A survey of landed property establishing or reestablishing lengths and directions of boundary line@Land Survey The study of an existing pattern of use, within an area, to determine the nature and magnitude of deficiencies which might exist and to assess the potential of the pattern relative to development goals@Land-use Analysis A study and recording of the way in which land is being used in an area.@Land-use Survey In surveying, the North-South component of a traverse course.@Latitude An open space of ground of some size, covered with grass and kept smoothly mown@Lawn A contract transferring the right of possession of buildings, property, etc., for a fixed Lease period of time, usually for periodical compensation called 'rent'.@Lease A tenure by lease; real estate held under a lease.@Leasehold