Memory Formation Study Guide

Flashcards prepared to help review key concepts and definitions related to memory formation for the upcoming exam.

What is the difference between encoding, storage, retrieval, and forgetting?

Encoding is the process of transforming information into a form that can be stored, storage is the maintenance of information over time, retrieval is accessing stored information when needed, and forgetting refers to the inability to access or retain information.

What does the modal model of memory describe?

The modal model describes three structures for memory storage: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

What are primacy and recency effects?

Primacy refers to better recall of items presented at the beginning of a list, while recency refers to better recall of items presented at the end of a list, and both are related to the serial position curve.

What is sensory memory?

Sensory memory is the initial, brief storage of sensory information.

What is iconic memory?

Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual information.

What evidence did Sperling's study provide for sensory memory?

Sperling demonstrated that people could recall a few letters from a briefly presented display, supporting the notion that iconic memory holds visual information for a very short time.

What is the difference between the whole and partial report methods in studies of memory?

The whole report method asks participants to recall all items, while the partial report method asks them to recall only a subset, which typically leads to better performance.

What is echoic memory?

Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly holds auditory information.

What is the suffix effect?

The suffix effect occurs when a distracting stimulus presented after an auditory list reduces recall of the list items.

What is short term memory also known as?

Short term memory is also known as working memory.

What is the capacity of short term memory?

The capacity of short term memory is typically around 7 plus or minus 2 items.

How is information coded in short term memory?

Information in short term memory is primarily coded acoustically.

What does the Brown-Peterson paradigm indicate about short term memory?

The Brown-Peterson paradigm shows that short term memory is subject to rapid forgetting without rehearsal.

How do the Brown-Peterson paradigm results differ from Keppel and Underwood's findings?

Keppel and Underwood found that proactive interference plays a significant role in short term memory forgetting, suggesting that prior learning interferes with recall.

What is proactive interference?

Proactive interference is when old information interferes with the encoding of new information.

What is retroactive interference?

Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of old information.

What is the capacity for long term memory?

The capacity for long term memory is virtually unlimited.

How is information coded in long term memory?

Information in long term memory is primarily coded semantically.

What are the differences between parallel, serial exhaustive, and serial self-terminating searches in memory retrieval?

Parallel search retrieves all information simultaneously, serial exhaustive checks each item one by one until the target is found, and serial self-terminating stops once the target is found.

What are the three components of Baddeley’s Working Memory Theory?

The three components are the Central Executive, Phonological Loop, and Visuospatial Sketchpad.

What are the functions of the Central Executive in working memory?

The Central Executive is responsible for coordinating and integrating information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

What kind of information does the Phonological Loop process?

The Phonological Loop processes verbal and auditory information.

What parts make up the Phonological Loop?

The Phonological Loop consists of the phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal process.

What happens to visually presented information compared to auditorially presented information?

Visually presented information is stored in a different format and lasts shorter than auditorily presented information which can be rehearsed through the phonological loop.

What happens to information that is not rehearsed in short term memory?

Information that is not rehearsed tends to decay rapidly and is likely to be forgotten.

What is the capacity of the Phonological Store?

The capacity of the Phonological Store is typically limited to 2 seconds of speech.

What functions does the Visuospatial Sketchpad serve?

The Visuospatial Sketchpad is responsible for storing and manipulating visual and spatial information.

What is percent savings in memory?

Percent savings refers to the difference in time or trials needed to learn material after forgetting it.

What method did Ebbinghaus use to calculate his percent savings?

Ebbinghaus calculated percent savings by measuring how much less time it took to relearn previously learned material.

What does Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve illustrate?

The Ebbinghaus curve illustrates that memory retention declines rapidly after initial learning but levels off over time.

What was Bahrick's (1984) method for studying memory retention?

Bahrick used real-world information and tested recall and recognition over time to study memory retention.

Were Bahrick's findings similar to Ebbinghaus’s results? Why or why not?

Bahrick's findings differed from Ebbinghaus’s as they showed that real-world information can be retained longer than nonsense syllables.

Are rehearsals important in memory retrieval?

Rehearsals can help but deeper, more meaningful processing is more important for memory retrieval.

What are the two ways to process information?

The two ways are shallow processing, which focuses on superficial characteristics, and deep processing, which focuses on meaning.

Does deeper or shallower processing lead to better memory?

Deeper processing typically leads to better memory retention.

What did the penny example illustrate in class?

The penny example demonstrated that people can struggle to recognize details of familiar objects despite having seen them frequently.

Is depth or intent important according to Levels of Processing theory?

According to the Levels of Processing theory, depth is more crucial than intent for effective memory retrieval.

What are the two problems with the Levels of Processing theory?

The two problems are the difficulty in measuring depth and that deeper processing does not always guarantee better retention.

Name a study that showed deeper processing wasn’t necessarily better. What was its conclusion?

A study showed that emotional content, not just depth, can also impact retrieval effectiveness.

What is Transfer Appropriate Processing?

Transfer Appropriate Processing suggests that memory retrieval is enhanced when the conditions match those during encoding.

What does Encoding Specificity depend on?

Encoding Specificity depends on the overlap between the encoding context and the retrieval context.

What is context-dependent memory?

Context-dependent memory is when recall is improved when the context at recall matches the context at encoding.

Provide an example of context-dependent memory.

For instance, if a study is conducted underwater, recalling the material underwater can enhance memory retrieval.

What is state-dependent memory?

State-dependent memory is when recall is improved when an individual is in the same physiological state as when they learned the information.

Provide an example of state-dependent memory.

For instance, someone who learns information intoxicated may recall it better when in the same state.

What is mood-dependent memory?

Mood-dependent memory is when recall is improved if the mood during learning matches the mood during retrieval.

What is the difference between mood-dependent and mood-congruent memory?

Mood-dependent memory relates to matching mood at learning and recall, while mood-congruent memory refers to better recall of information consistent with one's current mood.

What is confabulation?

Confabulation is the memory error where a person makes up details to fill in gaps in their memory.

Where do extra details from confabulation come from?

Extra details can come from a person's existing memories or associations.

What is the primary source of a memory during recall attempts?

The primary source is the original experience or event.

What are secondary sources in memory recall?

Secondary sources are other factors that influence the recollection of memories, such as suggestions from others.

Can memory change over time?

Yes, memory can change over time due to various factors including new information and reconsolidation.

What is a schema?

A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.

What can a schema influence?

Schemas can influence how we perceive, remember, and interpret information.

What was demonstrated by Hasher and Griffen (1978)?

They showed that memory is often influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.

Are there circumstances in which memory can be perfectly accurate?

Generally, memory is prone to errors and biases, though certain conditions can lead to high accuracy.

What are flashbulb memories?

Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed memories of significant events.

What do people typically remember from a flashbulb memory?

People tend to remember where they were, what they were doing, and emotional reactions.

Are flashbulb memories more accurate than regular memories?

Research suggests that while they feel more vivid, flashbulb memories can be just as inaccurate as regular memories.

What challenges do researchers face in studying flashbulb memories?

The emotional and consequential nature of events can impact accuracy and reporting.

What were the findings of the Weaver (1993) diary study?

Weaver found that participants' memories of flashbulb events changed over time, indicating inaccuracies.

What was the result of the Weaver study regarding memory accuracy?

The study concluded that flashbulb memories could become distorted just like regular memories.

What are the three types of reconstruction in memory?

The three types include attribution errors, inferences, and the impact of suggestive information.

What are attribution errors in memory?

Attribution errors occur when a person inaccurately assigns the source of a memory.

What are inferences in terms of memory?

Inferences are guesses made by individuals based on partial information.

What happened in Loftus and Palmer (1974)?

Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that the wording of questions can affect eyewitness testimony.

What occurred in the Red Datsun Study?

The study showed that leading questions influenced participants' memories of a car accident.

Did incentive make a difference in the Red Datsun study?

Incentives did not significantly change the accuracy of recalled information.

Did awareness make a difference in eyewitness accuracy?

The level of awareness at the time of witnessing the event did impact memory recall.

What does the DRM paradigm illustrate?

The DRM paradigm illustrates memory's susceptibility to false memories through associative activation.

What were the results of Loftus (1993)?

Loftus found that misinformation could distort participants' memories of an event.

What happened in Hyman & Billings (1998) study?

Hyman and Billings demonstrated that false memories could be created through suggestion.

What were the findings of the Hyman & Billings study?

They found that individuals could falsely remember events that never occurred.

What was the conclusion from Wade et al (2002) study?

Wade's study showed that photographs can induce false memories about events.

What was discovered in Berkoqitz et al. (2005) study?

Berkoqitz demonstrated that false memories can arise from social interactions and suggestion.

How long can information be stored in memory?

Memories can potentially be stored for a lifetime, though access may be impaired.

What are the two types of knowledge in memory?

The two types of knowledge are episodic memory and semantic memory.

What is episodic memory?

Episodic memory is the ability to recall personal experiences and specific events.

What is semantic memory?

Semantic memory is the storage of general knowledge and concepts not tied to specific experiences.

What evidence supports that episodic and semantic memories are separate systems?

Neuropsychological studies show different brain areas are involved in episodic vs. semantic memory.

What is the Hierarchical Model in memory structures?

The Hierarchical Model organizes information in a hierarchy to represent relationships among concepts.

What is cognitive economy according to the Hierarchical Model?

Cognitive economy suggests that properties are stored at the highest possible level to minimize redundancy.

What are the two types of links in the Hierarchical Model?

The two types of links in the Hierarchical Model are "is-a" links, which indicate hierarchical relationships, and "has-a" links, which show property relationships between concepts.