• Maritime Empires: Powerful European states like Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands that expanded overseas via naval power and colonization. • Caravel: A small, fast ship developed by the Portuguese, great for long voyages and exploration. • Astrolabe: A tool used by sailors to navigate by the stars. • Magnetic Compass: A navigation tool that always points north, improving ocean travel. • Columbian Exchange: The transfer of crops, animals, people, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas). • Triangular Trade: A system where Europe sent goods to Africa, Africa sent enslaved people to the Americas, and the Americas sent raw materials to Europe. • Middle Passage: The brutal, deadly journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean. • Joint-Stock Company: Businesses where investors shared profits and losses, making colonization less risky (e.g., British East India Co.). • Mercantilism: Economic system focused on building national wealth by controlling trade and colonies. • Encomienda System: Spanish labor system using Native Americans for work on plantations and in mines. • Hacienda System: Large Spanish estates that produced crops using coerced labor. • Syncretism: The blending of religions or cultures (ex: Vodun, Sikhism). • Diaspora: People leaving or being forced from their homeland and forming new communities. • Resistance Movements: Uprisings by native peoples or enslaved populations against colonial powers. Q&A: Q: What technological innovations made transoceanic travel possible? A: Caravel ships, the compass, the astrolabe, and new sailing techniques like lateen sails. Q: What were the effects of the Columbian Exchange? A: Population collapse in the Americas (due to disease), new crops in Europe (like potatoes), and new animals in the Americas (like horses). Highlights: • European empires shifted from land-based to sea-based power. • Global trade expanded. • African slave trade intensified. Conclusion: Unit 4 was all about new global connections—especially across the Atlantic and Pacific. Technology and trade built powerful empires and changed life everywhere, especially for indigenous peoples and Africans

Brown v. Board of Education

A landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional.

Separate but Equal

The legal doctrine that justified and enabled racial segregation, asserting that as long as the separate facilities were equal, segregation did not violated the 14th Amendment.

14th Amendment

An amendment to the United States Constitution that addresses citizenship rights and equal protection under the law, ratified in 1868.

Landmark Case

A significant court case that sets a precedent and has lasting impact on the law and society.

Desegregation

The process of ending the systematic separation of various racial or ethnic groups within public institutions.