Overview of the Immune System and Pathogens

Function of the immune system

Defense against pathogens.

Pathogens

Disease-causing agent.

Pathogens treated with antibiotics

Bacterial infections/pathogens.

Number of pathogens

1400ish pathogens.

Common bacterial diseases

Strep throat, Salmonella, Pneumonia, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and E. Coli.

Flu treatment with antibiotics

No, the flu is not a bacterial infection.

Gonorrhea treatment with antibiotics

Yes, Gonorrhea is a bacterial infection.

Bacteria classification

Bacteria are prokaryotes.

How antibiotics work

By targeting specific cellular components that are unique to prokaryotes.

Common fungal diseases

Athlete's foot, Ringworm, Yeast Infection.

Difficulty in treating fungal infections

Fungal cells are similar in many ways to human cells, thus being harder to make an antifungal drug that kills just fungus without harming the body cells.

Percent of world infected by gastrointestinal nematode

50% of the world.

Gastrointestinal nematode

A parasite that infects the digestive system of animals, including humans.

Prions

An abnormal folding of a protein that causes a chain reaction of misfolded proteins.

CJD fatality timeline

Within a year.

How viruses stay alive

Taking a host cell. Needs another living organism to reproduce/survive.

Examples of viruses

Influenza, Rabies, Cold, Chickenpox, Herpes.

Viruses treatment with antibiotics

NO!

Three components of blood

1. Plasma 2. Buffy Coat 3. Red Blood cells.

Plasma composition

Water, hormones, proteins, sugar, fats, vitamins.

Buffy Coat composition

White blood cells, platelets.

Function of Red Blood Cells

Carry oxygen.

Platelets function

Aid in blood clotting.

Most common cell type in the body

Red blood cells.

Majority cell types by mass

Fat and muscle cells.

Leukocytes

White blood cells that protect against illness/disease.

Increase in white blood cells indication

The body is fighting some sort of illness, infection, or disease.

Normal WBC count

4000-11000.

Leukocytosis

On the higher end of the range, typically around 11000 counts; in response to acute diseases.

Leukopenia

About 4000 WBC; chronic diseases, viral infections, many cancers, malaria.

Differentiating white blood cell counts indication

Different types of infection, usually with more specificity.

Varying features of white blood cells

Size, cytoplasmic characteristics, and nucleus shape.

Eosinophil function

Attack large parasites and allergies.

Neutrophil function

Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, etc.

Basophil function

Secrete heparin and histamine, also viewed as the controller of inflammation.

Lymphocyte function

Immune system memory; produces antibodies that attack specific foreign substances.

Monocyte function

Phagocytize bacteria, etc.

Most common WBC type

Neutrophils.

First responding phagocytic WBC type

Neutrophils respond first, and monocytes are delayed.

WBC types from most to least common and their percentages

N: Neutrophils 60-70%, L: Lymphocytes 20-40%, M: Monocyte 3-10%, E: Eosinophils 1-4%, B: Basophils 1%.

Mnemonic for WBC commonality

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas.

Antigens

A substance that is recognized as foreign by the body.

Antigens stimulation

Immune response.

Antibodies

A protein produced by cells of the immune system to respond to an antigen.

How antibodies work

They recognize and bind to the antigen using a receptor.

Chemical equation of cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy.

Three steps of cellular respiration

Glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and the electron transport chain.

Step with majority of ATP production

The electron transport chain.

Final acceptor of the ETC

Oxygen.

Aerobic vs Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen while anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen.

Types of anaerobic respiration and byproducts

1. Lactic acid fermentation: 2 lactate. 2. Alcohol fermentation: 2 ethanol and 2 CO2.

Efficiency of anaerobic respiration

It uses a whole glucose molecule still while producing significantly less ATP. Anaerobic produces 2 ATP molecules.

Energy currency of the cell

ATP is the energy currency of the cell. ATP is high-energy while ADP is the low-energy state.

Epithelial tissue locations

Outer surfaces, inside surfaces of hollow organs, and glands.

Smoothness of epithelial tissue

The surfaces that it creates need to be seamless and tightly packed.

Non-cellular layer anchoring epithelial tissue

The basal lamina, also called the basement membrane.

Types of fibrous connective tissue

1. Elastic: Lots of elastic fibers, around hollow organs that change significantly in size. 2. Loose: Mix of collagen/elastic fibers, most common, and surrounds many organs. 3. Reticular: Lots of reticular fibers, form a flexible internal framework for soft organs and lymph glands. 4. Dense: Lots of collagen fibers, in ligaments and tendons.

Integumentary system components

Skin and accessory structures. Accessory structures include hair, nails, sensory receptors, and glands.

Layers of the skin and tissue types

1. Epidermis: Made of entirely stratified squamous epithelium. 2. Dermis: Made of dense connective tissue.

Signs of skin cancer

Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, and Evolution. Remember ABCDE.

Dermis

Found in the skin where most of the structures such as blood vessels, nerves, and glands are located.

Epithelial Tissue Naming

The number of cell layers and the shape of the cell.

Cell Layer Types

Simple and stratified.

Epithelial Tissue Shapes

Columnar, cuboidal, and squamous.

Skeletal System Components

206 bones, connective tissues, tendons, cartilage, and ligaments.

Articulation

The point where two bones meet.

Diaphysis

Shaft of the bone, mainly compact bone.

Epiphysis

Expanded ends of the long bone, mainly spongy bone, surface coated with cartilage, and will form a joint.

Compact Bone

Nearly a solid structure containing osteocytes (bone cells) and osteon (matrix + osteocytes + central canal).

Spongy Bone

Fine network of bone tissue.

Epiphyseal Plate

(growth plate) Sites of active cell division.

Cartilage

At the ends of long bones, specifically in the synovial joints.

Yellow Bone Marrow

The center region/shaft of the bone.

Red Bone Marrow

The end regions of the bone.

Osteocytes

Bone cells that make up the bone.

Osteoblasts

Cells that create new bone cells, build the bone, and synthesize bone.

Osteoclasts

Cells that break down older bone cells, release many bone-containing materials, and break down bone tissue.

Fibrous Joints

A thin layer of dense connective tissue that lies between bones in close contact.

Cartilaginous Joints

Allow more movement than fibrous joints but are still limited.

Synovial Joints

Allow free movement, separated by a thin fluid filled cavity.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

Parathyroid hormone, secreted to increase blood calcium levels.

Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers

Used for endurance activities, oxygen efficient, have more mitochondria, resistant to fatigue.

Fast Twitch Muscle Fibers

Used for quick bursts, uses stored energy like glycogen as a fuel source, tires quickly.

Rigor Mortis

Occurs because ATP is no longer produced after death which is needed for muscle relaxation and contraction.

Cardiovascular System Components

Heart (pump) and blood vessels (carries blood).

Blood Return Mechanisms

Pressure from heart contractions, contraction of skeletal muscles, and valves in veins.

Ventricles vs Atria

Ventricles are a lot thicker than atria; ventricles pump blood forcefully, requiring strong contractions.

Capillary Permeability

The capillary wall is a single-cell layer thick, allowing small molecules like oxygen and nutrients to move out.

Artery vs Vein Structure

Arteries are thicker and more muscular than veins to withstand high blood pressure.

Endocrine System Functions

Maintains homeostasis, coordinates complex body functions, reproduction, metabolism, growth/development, and immune system.

Endocrine System Components

Hormones, endocrine glands, and target cells.

Signaling Pathways

Paracrine: Affects neighboring cells; Autocrine: Affects the secreting cell; Endocrine: Travels in the bloodstream; Exocrine: Secretes outside the body.

Metabolism Regulation Hormones

T4 and T3, produced by the thyroid and parathyroid.

Signal Transduction Steps

1. Reception: Signal molecule binds to a specific receptor. 2. Transduction: Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway. 3. Response: Activation of cellular response.

Pancreas Blood Sugar Regulation

Through secretion of alpha cells (glucagon) and beta cells (insulin).

Type I Diabetes

Insulin-dependent, autoimmune disease where beta cells are destroyed.

Type II Diabetes

Beta cells produce insulin but cells lose the ability to recognize it.

Hormone Receptor Specificity

Different cells have different specific receptors, allowing only certain cells to respond to hormones.

Pathogen

A disease-causing agent.

White Blood Cell Function

Protection against illness and/or disease.