AP U.S. Government: Congress, Presidency, Bureaucracy, and Judiciary

Public approval of rating of Congress

Public opinion of Congress is usually low; Americans often disapprove of Congress overall but support their own representatives.

Bicameral chambers of Congress

Congress is divided into two chambers—the House of Representatives and the Senate—to balance representation and power.

Descriptive vs substantive representation

Descriptive means representatives share characteristics with voters; substantive means they act on voters' interests regardless of background.

Trustees vs delegates

Trustees use their own judgment when voting; delegates vote according to their constituents' wishes.

Do members of Congress reflect American voters?

Not entirely; they are often wealthier and more educated, though they may represent voters' political views.

Top priorities of individual members of Congress

Reelection, serving constituents, advancing policies, and supporting their political party.

Incumbency advantage

Current officeholders have a high chance of reelection because of name recognition, fundraising ability, and experience.

Gridlock in Congress

Partisan conflict and divided government make it hard to pass laws or budgets, sometimes leading to shutdowns.

How does a bill become a law?

A bill is introduced → reviewed by committee → debated and voted in both chambers → sent to the President for approval or veto.

Powers of the presidency

Expressed: Listed in the Constitution (e.g., veto, commander in chief). Implied: Inferred from the Constitution. Delegated: Granted by Congress to enforce laws. Inherent: Claimed in times of crisis or national emergency.

Why/how has the presidency's power grown over time?

Through wars, crises, and expanding government responsibilities, presidents have used executive orders and actions to increase influence.

Youngstown Sheet Company vs Newman (1952)

President Truman tried to seize steel mills during the Korean War; the Supreme Court ruled against him, limiting presidential power without Congress's consent.

Justice Jackson's 3 zones of presidential power

Zone 1: President acts with Congress's approval → strongest authority. Zone 2: Congress is silent → power is shared or uncertain. Zone 3: President acts against Congress's will → weakest authority.

Checks on presidential power

Congress (impeachment, veto override), courts (judicial review), and public opinion limit presidential power.

Unitary executive theory

The belief that the president has full control over the entire executive branch.

How do presidents expand their scope of power?

By issuing executive orders, using administrative control, and appealing directly to the public.

Going Public

Speaking directly to citizens for support.

Administrative strategies

Using executive tools and bureaucracy to carry out policy goals.

Public approval of the president

Measures citizens' support for the president; affects political influence and reelection chances.

Bureaucracy

The system of government agencies and officials that implement and enforce federal laws.

Federal bureaucrats

Career government workers and appointees who carry out programs, enforce regulations, and provide services.

Political appointees

Individuals appointed by the president (and often confirmed by the Senate) to lead government departments or agencies.

3 main areas that federal bureaucracy manages

Implementation (enforcing laws), Administration (organizing programs), and Regulation (making rules).

Privatization

The government hires private companies for services; pros: saves money and increases efficiency; cons: less oversight and accountability.

Principle-agent problem

Occurs when a person or group (agent) acts on behalf of another (principal) but pursues their own interests.

Congressional oversight types

Police patrol: Routine monitoring, thorough but slow. Fire alarm: Responds to problems, faster but less consistent.

GAO

Government Accountability Office; checks how taxpayer money is spent and evaluates programs.

Russell Vought

Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) under President Trump.

Regulatory Capture

When agencies favor the industries they regulate instead of protecting the public interest.

Freedom of Information Act

A law that allows citizens to request and access federal government records.

Whistleblowing

Reporting government wrongdoing or abuse; whistleblowers are protected from retaliation.

Judicial Federalism

The division of power between state and federal court systems.

3-tiered court system

District Courts → Courts of Appeals → Supreme Court.

Supreme Court

The highest court in the U.S.; interprets the Constitution and reviews lower court cases.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supreme Court case that established judicial review, allowing courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to decide whether laws or government actions are constitutional.

Granting cert

The Supreme Court grants certiorari when four justices agree to hear a case involving major constitutional or national importance.

Judicial appointment

Process where the president nominates federal judges and the Senate confirms them.

Statutory vs constitutional interpretation

Statutory: Interpreting meaning of congressional laws. Constitutional: Deciding if laws or actions violate the Constitution.

Judicial decision making

Judges base decisions on law, precedent, personal ideology, and sometimes public opinion.

*How do 3 branches "manage" the bureaucracy? (there's a LOT of ways)*

Congress:* Budgets and oversight.

President:* Appoints leaders and issues orders.

Courts:* Review agency decisions.

Police patrol oversight

Congress routinely monitors agencies through regular hearings, audits, and reports; proactive but time-consuming and costly.

Fire alarm oversight

Congress reacts to problems or complaints after they occur; efficient and focused but reactive and can allow issues to grow first.