INSTINCTS & DRIVES: EARLY IDEAS IN THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION

What is motivation?

force acting within an organism to give behavior its energy, direction, and persistence.

Energy refers to the

strength and intensity of the behavior

direction is the

specific goal or aim of the behavior

persistence means the

behavior is sustained over time.

What is a grand theory?

an all-encompassing theory that seeks to explain the full range of motivated action.

What were two early grand theories in the study of motivation?

Two early grand theories revolved around instincts and drives, influenced by biological determinism

biological determinism

the belief that biological factors, such as genetics, brain structure, & physiology are the primary determinants of human behaviour

What is an instinct?

'hardwired' or 'programmed in' bits of behavior that:

- do not require learning

- occur in response to environmental triggers (such as herding in animals or nest building in birds)

How did William James view human instincts?

- similar to reflexes

- elicited by sensory stimuli

- occur blindly the first time, but subsequent behaviour may change through experience

- Two principles explaining variability in instincts

--- Learning can inhibit an instinct

--- Some instincts are transitory (appear only at certain times)

How did William McDougall view human instincts?

primary drivers of all human behavior composed of cognitive, affective, and conative (striving toward or away from the object)

What were the criticisms of early instinct theories?

- lack of agreement on types and number of instincts

- nominal fallacy (naming does not explain)

- circular reasoning

- insufficient recognition of learning's role (lack of clear differentiation between instinct & learning)

Define and describe the following terms: fixed-action pattern, sign stimulus, stereotyped behaviour

Fixed-action patterns are pre-programmed behaviors triggered by a specific stimulus (sign stimulus) and follow a predictable sequence (stereotyped behavior).

What is evolutionary psychology? What are evolutionary psychologists primarily interested in?

studies how evolutionary processes have shaped human minds and behaviors, focusing on the adaptive functions of behavior.

Ethology is the

study of animal behavior in natural settings

What is natural selection?

the process through which traits become more or less common due to environmental pressures.

What are natural selection's three key components?

- variation (individual differences in traits)

- heredity (variation passed down to offspring)

- differential fitness (unequal survival and reproduction).

What is an adaptation?

traits that increase chances of survival & reproduction in a given environment

What are baby schemata? What response do they evoke? What might this response be adaptive from an evolutionary perspective?

- 'baby-like' features (big eyes, small chin, large forehead) are sign stimuli that trigger caregiving motivation.

- adults perceived as warmer, more naïve, and weaker (Feel pity and protective)

- This response evolved to ensure infants receive care and protection.

survival selection

involves adaptations that increase survival odds

sexual selection

involves traits that help secure mates, occurring through intrasexual competition or intersexual choice.

intrasexual selection

competition among individuals of the same sex for mates

intersexual selection.

driven by mate choice, where one sex prefers certain traits in the other.

From an evolutionary perspective, what adaptive functions might aggression serve?

- defense against predators

- competition for resources (survival selection)

- competition for mates (intrasexual selection)

- attracting mates (intersexual selection)

Summarize gender differences in aggression. How do evolutionary psychologists explain these differences, and what evidence supports their hypotheses?

Men are more likely to engage in physical aggression than women.

- this arises from male competition for mates

- supported by research showing mating motivation increases aggression in men when given the opportunity

According to evolutionary psychologists, what is the link between sexual motivation and aggressive motivation?

Studies show men primed with mating motivation display increased aggression towards same-sex rivals but not opposite-sex individuals, consistent with competition for mates.

What is the counter view of gender differences in aggression? What is the evidence that socialization and culture may contribute to these differences?

- suggests social norms encourage male aggression.

- differences emerge early in life (parents interpreting infant reactions differently based on gender)

What are cultures of honour?

place high value on social reputation, feel strong obligation to defend their honour, often through aggressive means (More likely to respond with anger and aggression to insult & More accepting of violence in the defense of one's honour) - more prevalent in regions with a history of herding economies where protecting resources was crucial (to maintain status and prevent theft)

What research evidence supports this idea (culture of honor)?

Studies show

- Southerners in the U.S. respond more aggressively to insults

- employers in the South react more positively to honor-related violence in job applications

- due to socialization!

What is a drive? What is the overarching idea behind drive theories?

Bodily deficits experienced psychologically as internal states of tension, compelling action to restore balance. Drive theories propose that behavior is motivated by drive reduction.

What is homeostasis?

process by which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Summarize Freud's drive theory in broad terms.

Nervous system aims to maintain low energy state; these inevitable urges disrupt this ideal state

o Energy build-ups create psychological discomfort (anxiety)

Freud proposed that behavior is driven by the need to reduce internal tension caused by biological needs, classified into life (Eros) and death (Thanatos) instincts.

1. Drive for life, survival, reproduction, & pleasure • Food, water, sleep, sex, nurturance, affiliation

2. Drive for rest, inactivity, return to inanimate state ▪ Often expressed through aggression, destruction, and self-harm

Freud's theory order

Drive's Source

Drive's Impetus

Drive's Object

Drive's Aim

Freud's Drive's Source

A bodily deficit occurs

Freud's Drive's Impetus

The intensity of the bodily deficit grows & emerges into consciousness as a psychological discomfort, which is anxiety.

Freud's Drive's Object

Seeking to reduce anxiety & satisfy the bodily deficit, the person searches out & consumes a need satisfying environmental object (e.g., food).

Freud's Drive's Aim

If the environmental object successfully satisfies the bodily deficit, satisfaction occurs & quiets anxiety, at least for a period of time

What are defensive strategies according to Freud's theory?

learned strategies for managing sexual and aggressive drives, allowing them to be channeled in socially acceptable ways

long explanation of hull's theory

Behaviour is motivated by drive reduction

▪ "Drive is an energizer not a guide" • Habit, rather than drive, directs behaviour

▪ Habits derive from learning • Relief following drive reduction reinforces habit

▪ "Drive, cue, response, reward" • Drive energizes behavioural search for a stimulus (cue) that, when attained (by response) reinforces (rewards) that behavioural response

hull's drive theory: third cause of behaviour:

incentive motivation

- Value of stimulus (quantity or quality)

Summarize Hull's drive theory in broad terms.

- strength of behaviour is a function of: drive (biological motivation like hunger)

- habit (probability of the motivated behaviour acquired through learning)

- and incentive (environmental motivation—reward)

What are the limitations of drive theory?

does not account for motivations unrelated to physiological deficits

- human motivation emphasize psychological needs (e.g., need for affiliation, for achievement)

- underemphasizes external and environmental factors.