Pathophysiology Exam 1

Etiology

Etiology

Study of causes and risk factors of disease

Pathogenesis

How does the etiology express itself in disease

Clinical Manifestations

Signs and symptoms Stages of clinical course: Latent versus Subclinical

latent

hidden, present but not realized

subclinical

without showing signs of disease

Acute clinical course

short-lived; may have severe manifestation

Chronic clinical course

may last months to years, sometimes following an acute course

Exacerbation

increase in the severity of a disease or its symptoms;

Remission

decrease in severity, signs, or symptoms; may indicate disease is cured

Convalescence

stage of recovery after a disease, injury, or surgical procedure

Sequela

subsequent pathologic condition resulting from an acute illness

Epidemiology

the study of patterns of disease in populations, including risk factors

Endemic disease

Spreaded within a local region

Epidemic disease

Spread to many people at the same time

Pandemic

Spread to large geographic areas (worldwide)

Aggregate Factors / Epidemiologic variables

Factors such as: age, ethnic group, gender, lifestyle considerations, geographic location

Function of cytoskeleton

Maintains cell shape and allows cell movement. It directs traffic of substances in the cell.

Nucleus

Control center of the cell; aka the brain of the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Specializes in synthesis, folding, and transport of protein and lipid components of most organelles.

Golgi Apparatus

Processing and packaging proteins into secretory vesicles

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

Digests lipids and proteins; They are released during cell injury

Mitochondria

Place of processes; ATP

Cellular metabolism

all of the chemical tasks of maintaining essential cellular functions

Anabolism

The energy using process of metabolism that synthesizes complex molecules

Catabolism

Energy releasing process

Plasma membrane

Structure is made of lipid bilayer; Transports lipid soluble molecules

Endocytosis

Cellular ingestion of extracellular molecules; process by which cells absorb external material by engulfing it with the cell membrane

Exocytosis

Cellular secretion

Mitosis

Responsible for proliferation of body cells in which little genetic variation is needed

Meiosis

A more elaborate cellular division in germ cells where significant chromosomal rearrangement occurs

Ischemia

Lack of blood supply

Example of ischemia

stroke, heart attack

Hypoxic injury

Not enough oxygen to tissues

Example of hypoxic injury

high elevation, respiratory distress, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Nutritional injury

Poor intake, altered absorption, impaired distribution, inefficient cellular uptake of essential nutrients

Example of nutritional injury

Eating disorders, diabetes, dehydration, high sodium, cramping, alcoholism

Infectious and immunologic injury

Bacteria or viruses; body attacking itself

Example of infectious and immunologic injury

covid, c.diff, hiv

Chemical injury

Toxic chemicals or poisons can cause cellular injury both indirectly and by becoming metabolized into reactive chemicals by the body

Examples of chemical injury

Chemical burns, chemotherapy, alcoholism, normal occurring chemicals in the body (calcium, sodium, etc)

Physical and mechanical injury

causing injury to skeletal or injury to organs and system

Examples of physical and mechanical injury

Getting hit by a car, rolling ankle, jamming finger, fractures, cut, bruises

Neoplasia

Abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth

What is the body's first line of defense?

Immunity; skin, mucous membranes, phagocyte system

What do enzymes and lysozymes do?

protect the cell wall; sebaceous glands possess lactic acid which kill fungi; earwax, saliva, mucus

What happens to the normal microbiome with prolonged treatment of broad spectrum antibiotics?

All the microbiome dies; yeast infection could occur

What is the body's second line of defense?

Inflammation

What does inflammation do?

Covers you from injury, trauma, disease

What are caused by inflammation?

Heart disease, lung disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders

What happens when inflammation occurs?

Redness, swelling, heat, loss of function

Pus

Made of dead white blood cells

What are the 3 key plasma protein systems?

Complement, clotting, and kinin

Complement system

Is triggered through enzyme cascade

Clotting system

Cellular proteins that form blood clot when activated; coagulation

Kinin system

Controls bleeding and bacteria

Serous discharge

clear drainage such as mucus or plasma

Serosanguinous discharge

contains blood and plasma; pink colored fluid

Sanguineous discharge

bloody drainage

Purulent discharge

Pus; thick, yellowish brown drainage

What is an exudate?

A mass of cells and fluid that has seeped out of blood vessels or an organ, especially in inflammation.

4 types of exudates

serous, serosanguinous, sanguineous, purulent

Acute inflammation

sudden; fever; the body's use of leukocytosis (increase of WBC during infection)

Chronic inflammation

ongoing stimulus (at least 2 weeks); repetitive cycle; immune helper cells try to do their job of healing but ongoing stimulus results in more cell recruitment

Examples of acute inflammation

allergic reaction, chemical irritants, infection, trauma injury, burns, laceration, frostbite

Examples of chronic inflammation

cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, autoimmune disease, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, lupus

What is the body's third line of defense?

Adaptive immunity

Examples of adaptive immunity

the flu; body is forming antibodies to fight; vaccines

Lymphoid system

Defense against infection and disease

What do natural killer (NK) cells do?

immune cell that kill cells that are infected with a virus

What do B cells and T cells do?

T cells can wipe out infected or cancerous cells. They also direct the immune response by helping B lymphocytes to eliminate invading pathogens. B cells create antibodies.

Hypersensitivity reactions

allergies, autoimmunity, alloimmunity

What is autoimmunity

body attacks own cells

Alloimmunity

Type of immunity that produces an immune response against antigens from members of the same species; blood transfusions, transplants, HIV

Passive immuity

antibodies are given; placenta and breastmilk to a baby

What are immunoglobulins?

Antibody molecules found in the blood; IgG, IgM, IgE

IgG

Most abundant antibody; those with Lupus or Graves disease have elevated levels

IgM

Second most abundant antibody; considered the mounted troops

IgE

it initiates inflammation response immediately, environmental allergy response

Examples of an autoimmune disease

Lupus, raynaud's disease, graves disease, sclerosis

Acquired immunity

immunity that the body develops after it overcomes a disease (vaccines, getting the flu)

Benign

Does not spread but has potential to become malignant; small, slow growing, noninvasive

Malignant

Can spread and is harmful; Large, rapidly growing with hemmorhage and necrosis; locally invasive (es muy malo)

Anaplasia

lack of cell differentiation; characteristic of malignant neoplasms

Metastasis

spread of cancer cells from site of original tumor; (lung cancer can travel to the brain)

Apoptosis

cell death

Cancer staging

TNM (Tumor, Nodes, Metastasis)

Predisposing factors and risk factors of cancer

age, tobacco, nutrition, tumors, surgical treatment

Effects of cancer

pain, anemia, cachexia (weakness) , infection, infertility, alopecia, bone density loss

Cancer therapy and treatment

Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy

What is the percentage of total body water (TBW) in adults?

60%

What does extracellular fluid include?

Interstitial fluid, intravascular fluid, transcellular fluids

What does transcellular fluid include?

synovial fluid, CSF, GI fluids, pleural fluids, peritoneal fluids, urine

What is osmolality?

The amount of certain substances in blood or urine, such as glucose, urea, and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride)

what is osmolarity

measure of total concentration of solute particles per liter

Hydrostatic pressure pushes water out of capillaries. What is this called?

Filtration

Osmotic/oncotic pressure pulls water into capillaries. What is this called?

Reabsorption

What happens when there is a deficit of fluid imbalance?

Concentration normal/extracellular fluid is decreased. Fluid shifts OUT OF vasculature. Treatment is fluid replacement.

What happens when there is excess of fluid imbalance?

Concentration normal/extracellular fluid is increased. Fluid shifts INTO vasculature

Hypotonic

Dilute, too much in the cell, push into the cell, swollen, "hippo"

Hypertonic

Concentrated, push out of the cell, not enough in the cell