Cognitive Psychology and Problem Solving Concepts

Anaphoric Inference

Refers to linking a pronoun or noun phrase to its antecedent in a previous sentence. Example: "John went to the store. He bought apples." ("He" refers to John).

Instrument Inference

Inferences about the tools used in an action. Example: "She cut the paper with scissors." (Inferred: she used scissors to cut the paper).

Causal Inference

Drawing a connection between events where one is the cause of the other. Example: "She didn't study, so she failed the test." (Inferred: not studying caused failure).

Situation Model

Mental representations of the events, objects, actions, and their spatial and temporal relationships in a narrative. Evidence: Studies using event-related potentials (ERPs) suggest that readers' brain activity reflects spatial (e.g., the location of objects) and temporal information (e.g., when events occur).

N400 Component

A negative shift in brain wave activity that reflects difficulty processing unexpected words or predictions that are violated. Example: "He took the ____ to the store" (Expecting "car," but seeing "apple" causes a larger N400).

P600 Component

An ERP component associated with syntactic processing, often linked to reanalysis when expectations about grammar are violated.

Metusalem et al. (2012) Study

N400 amplitudes were smaller for words consistent with the situation model (e.g., expected words) and larger for inconsistent words, suggesting that people form expectations during language comprehension.

Insight Problem

A problem that requires a sudden realization or change in perspective. Example: Duncker's Candle Problem.

Analytic Problem

A problem solved through step-by-step logic. Example: Solving a math equation.

Preparation (Gestalt Approach)

Initial understanding and representation of the problem.

Insight (Gestalt Approach)

Sudden realization or restructuring of the problem.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to think of objects as having more than one function. Example: Duncker's Candle Problem where the box is only seen as a container, not as a support for the candle.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using a method that has been successful in the past. Example: The Water Jug Problem shows how mental set can impede solving a problem.

Initial State (Newell & Simon's Model)

The starting point of the problem.

Goal State (Newell & Simon's Model)

The desired solution.

Operators (Newell & Simon's Model)

The actions that move the problem from the initial to the goal state.

Subgoals (Newell & Simon's Model)

Intermediate steps to the solution.

Problem Space (Newell & Simon's Model)

All possible states and operators.

Means-End Analysis

A strategy to reduce the difference between the current and goal state.

Source Problem

A previously solved problem used to help solve the target problem.

Target Problem

The problem you are trying to solve.

Analogical Paradox

People often fail to recognize analogies even when they are apparent.

Glick & Holyoak (1983) Finding

The most challenging part of analogical problem solving is mapping the source problem to the target problem.

Experts vs. Novices

Experts organize physics problems based on principles, whereas novices tend to focus on surface features (e.g., specific numbers).

Benefits of Expertise

Experts solve problems faster and more accurately.

Drawbacks of Expertise

Expertise can lead to tunnel vision, impeding creativity.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem. Example: Brainstorming different uses for a paperclip.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down options to find the best solution. Example: Solving a puzzle with one correct answer.

Smith et al. (1993)

Viewing examples reduces divergent thinking, suggesting that familiarity can narrow creativity.

Finke's Creative Cognition Procedure

Involves creating new ideas from preinventive forms—mental representations of possible solutions before the final product.

Incubation

Taking a break from the problem can help find solutions.

Inductive Reasoning

Making generalizations from specific observations (probabilistic). Example: 'All observed swans are white, so all swans are likely white.'

Deductive Reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general premises (deterministic). Example: 'All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.'

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that may lead to errors.

Availability Heuristic

Making decisions based on readily available information. Example: Believing airplane crashes are more common after hearing about one in the news.

Representativeness Heuristic

Making judgments based on stereotypes or patterns. Example: Assuming someone who is quiet and enjoys reading is more likely to be a librarian than a farmer.

Base Rate Neglect

Ignoring statistical information in favor of anecdotal evidence. Example: Ignoring the fact that most people are not librarians when predicting someone's profession.

Expected Utility Approach

People make decisions by maximizing the expected benefit or utility.

Expected vs. Incidental Emotions

Expected emotions are those anticipated in a situation, while incidental emotions are unrelated to the decision but influence it. Example: People may choose a smaller immediate reward to avoid feeling anxious (incidental emotion).

Framing Effects

The way a problem or situation is presented influences decision-making. Example: People prefer a treatment that has a '90% survival rate' over one with a '10% mortality rate,' even though they are the same.

Syllogisms

Deductive reasoning structures involving two premises and a conclusion. Categorical syllogism: 'All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.'

Truth vs. Validity in Syllogisms

A syllogism is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises, but it may not necessarily be true.

Mental Model Approach

Involves visualizing the problem's possibilities.

Wason Task

Tests logical reasoning by asking participants to identify which cards to turn over based on a rule. Correct Cards: You need to turn over the E (to check if it has an even number on the other side) and the 7 (to check if it's not showing an even number).

Falsification Principle

To test a rule, you must attempt to disprove it, not just confirm it.